[Correction of refractive errors by subtractive corneal surgery: History and perspectives]

The goal of this review is to trace the history of refractive correction, from the earliest optical devices to modern refractive surgical techniques. Following the invention of spectacles in the Middle Ages, the first corneal procedures, such as Sato's and Fyodorov's keratotomies and Barraquer's keratomileusis, highlighted the limitations of early mechanical approaches. In the 1980s, the advent of the excimer laser revolutionized refractive surgery with the introduction of PRK (photorefractive keratectomy) and subsequently LASIK (Laser-Assisted In Situ Keratomileusis). The development of the femtosecond laser further enhanced precision and safety, while KLEx (keratorefractive lenticule extraction) provided an alternative minimally invasive procedure. In parallel, personalized treatments guided by corneal topography or wavefront analysis have significantly improved visual outcomes. When corneal surgery is not feasible, phakic intraocular lenses or refractive lens exchange offer effective alternatives. Current research is focused on artificial intelligence, new laser platforms, advanced "intelligent" intraocular implants, and ocular bioengineering. The evolution of refractive surgery thus exemplifies continuous progress toward increasingly safe, precise, and patient-tailored techniques.