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Process-based measures of handwriting performance across manual preference.

Carlo Di Brina1, Tania Cerni2

  • 1Department of Human Neuroscience, Polyclinic Umberto I Hospital, Sapienza University, Via dei Sabelli, 108, 00186 Rome, Italy.

Human Movement Science
|March 25, 2026
PubMed
Summary

Handwriting performance differs between preferred and non-preferred hands, especially in motor execution. However, the spatial form of letters remains stable across hands, indicating shared motor representations.

Keywords:
Dynamic time warpingHand preferenceHandwritingMotor automatizationProcess-based measures

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Motor Control
  • Cognitive Psychology

Background:

  • Handwriting is a complex motor skill integrating effector-dependent execution and effector-independent representations.
  • Understanding hand-specific differences in handwriting is crucial for assessing motor control and learning.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate handwriting performance differences between the preferred hand (PH) and non-preferred hand (NPH).
  • To explore how execution-related and shape-based measures differentiate hand use and task demands.

Main Methods:

  • Twenty-five adults produced a cursive letter 'o' under four conditions (normal, fast, accurate, visually constrained).
  • Process-based measures (fluency, automatization, force regulation) and shape-based measures (Dynamic Time Warping) were analyzed.
  • Classification analyses identified the executing hand based on different measures.

Main Results:

  • The PH demonstrated superior fluency, automatization, and force regulation compared to the NPH.
  • Execution-related measures showed significant hand-related differences and sensitivity to task demands.
  • Shape-based measures exhibited less hand influence and task interaction, indicating stable letter forms.
  • Execution measures were more effective than shape measures in distinguishing the executing hand.

Conclusions:

  • A functional dissociation exists between handwriting's motor execution and spatial pattern stability.
  • Motor execution processes are effector-dependent (hand-specific), while letter-form representations are largely shared.
  • Combining execution and shape measures provides a comprehensive assessment of handwriting performance.