Effects of immersive training on motor competence: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) immersive training have gained attention for enhancing motor skills and rehabilitation, yet evidence on their effects in specific motor competence domains remains inconsistent due to outcome heterogeneity. This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated the impact of immersive AR and/or VR training on domain-specific motor competence (stability and functional mobility; object control and visuomotor skills) in healthy individuals and athletes. We searched Web of Science, PubMed, Cochrane Library, Scopus, CNKI, and EBSCO from inception to October 2025 for randomized controlled trials and controlled intervention studies comparing immersive AR and/or VR training with conventional training or no-intervention controls. The review followed PRISMA 2020 guidelines and was prospectively registered in PROSPERO (CRD420251238825). Eligible studies involved healthy or athletic participants reporting motor performance outcomes, classified into domain-specific constructs: stability and functional mobility (e.g., locomotor skills/mobility, postural stability) and object control and visuomotor skills (e.g., complex sport-specific skills, fundamental visuomotor abilities). These domains were further grouped by skill type, predominantly closed skills (predictable environments) versus open skills (unpredictable, dynamic environments). A random-effects model was used to compute standardized mean differences (SMD; Hedges' g), with heterogeneity assessed via I² statistics and robustness via leave-one-out sensitivity analysis. Eighteen studies contributing 20 independent effect sizes were included (total participants = 678; intervention group = 341; control group = 337). Domain-specific analyses revealed moderate beneficial effects: stability and functional mobility (8 studies) SMD = 0.68 (locomotor skills/mobility subgroup SMD = 0.71; postural stability subgroup SMD = 0.62); object control and visuomotor skills (11 studies) SMD = 0.72 (complex sport-specific skills subgroup SMD = 1.15; fundamental visuomotor abilities subgroup SMD = 0.39). Sensitivity analyses confirmed robustness, with no single study substantially altering pooled estimates. Immersive AR/VR training demonstrates moderate beneficial effects in targeted motor competence domains, particularly stability/functional mobility and object control/visuomotor skills. Current evidence suggests these technologies serve as effective alternatives or complementary adjuncts to conventional training rather than superior replacements. However, substantial heterogeneity in some domains (e.g., I² = 79% in locomotor skills/mobility) limits interpretability and warrants caution in generalization. Future research should prioritize standardized outcome measures and address methodological inconsistencies. This systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 guidelines. The study protocol was prospectively registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) under registration number CRD420251238825.