Invited review: Defining cattle handler skill-A systematic review and conceptual framework

Cattle handling is a common form of human-animal interaction, is essential to nearly all husbandry practices in cattle production, and has direct implications for animal welfare, productivity, and handler safety. Despite its critical role, the human skill involved in handling remains poorly defined, limiting efforts to evaluate stockperson performance, develop effective training programs, and improve outcomes for animals and workers. Defining handler skill is also essential for understanding how human-animal interactions influence animal behavior and welfare. To address this gap, we conducted a systematic review of peer-reviewed literature focused on cattle handling and stockperson factors. Articles were retrieved from the Web of Science database and screened using predefined inclusion criteria, including a focus on cattle, handler influence, and empirical data. Of the records initially identified, 57 met the inclusion criteria. Using grounded theory methods, data were extracted and synthesized into a handler-centered taxonomy of cattle handling skill, termed the VITAL model (Values and Attitudes, Integration of Knowledge, Technical Execution, Situational Awareness, and Continuous Learning). The VITAL model describes 5 interrelated dimensions of handler skill that together capture both observable handling actions and the perceptual and cognitive components that support skilled practice. This taxonomy provides a comprehensive, evidence-informed framework for defining and evaluating cattle handler competence. It can support the development of training curricula, assessment tools, and behavior-based welfare standards. By providing a shared vocabulary for handler skill, this work contributes to more consistent training outcomes and to improvements in animal welfare, worker safety, and productivity across dairy and beef production systems.