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Support-Enabled 3D Printing of Complex Anisotropic Hydrogel Structures Using Cellulose-Based Inks: Pathways Toward

Daniel Pint1, Tobias Steindorfer1, Florian Lackner1

  • 1Institute of Chemistry and Technology of Biobased System (IBioSys), Graz University of Technology, Stremayrgasse 9, 8010 Graz, Austria.

ACS Biomaterials Science & Engineering
|March 27, 2026
PubMed
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This summary is machine-generated.

A new 3D printing support system using cellulose-based inks enables stable, high-fidelity fabrication of complex hydrogel structures. This method overcomes limitations of unsupported printing, allowing for intricate designs in biomedical engineering and biofabrication.

Area of Science:

  • Biomaterials engineering
  • Soft matter physics
  • Biofabrication technologies

Background:

  • 3D printing of hydrogels is crucial for biomedical engineering and biofabrication.
  • Unsupported hydrogel printing faces challenges with structural collapse and deformation, limiting achievable geometries.
  • Existing support methods like FRESH require immersion baths, posing limitations for certain applications.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To develop a reproducible, standardized, open-air support system for 3D printing hydrogels.
  • To enable stable printing of complex and anisotropic hydrogel structures with high fidelity.
  • To provide a cost-effective and accessible protocol for hydrogel fabrication.

Main Methods:

  • Development of a dual-ink system: a nanofibrillated cellulose/sodium alginate (NFC/ALG) structural ink and a cellulose-based sacrificial support ink (NFC, hydroxyethyl cellulose, CaCl2).
Keywords:
3D bioprintingalginateanisotropic printingcellulose bioinksdirect ink writinghydrogelhydroxyethyl cellulosenanocellulosesacrificial support

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  • Direct Ink Writing (DIW) in open air, utilizing the sacrificial ink for local stabilization and cross-linking initiation without submersion.
  • Detailed protocols for ink preparation, printing parameters, post-printing cross-linking, and support dissolution using CaCl2.

    • Main Results:

    • Supported hydrogel tubes maintained structural integrity up to significantly greater heights compared to unsupported tubes.
    • Reduced layer height (420 μm) improved surface fidelity, resulting in watertight prints.
    • Successful printing of complex geometries, including an anatomical aorta, DNA double helix, and 3D Benchy model, demonstrated the method's versatility.
    • Support dissolution in 30 mM CaCl2 over approximately 3 days ensured stability during processing.

    Conclusions:

    • The developed cellulose-based sacrificial support system provides a robust and accessible method for stable, high-fidelity 3D printing of complex hydrogel structures.
    • This open-air approach overcomes limitations of immersion-based methods and is compatible with cell-laden systems.
    • The protocol supports advanced applications in biomedical engineering, soft material design, and biofabrication.