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Conformable Wearable Electrodes: From Fabrication to Electrophysiological Assessment
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A Stretchable Electronic Tattoo for Self-Powered Human-Machine Interfaces and Therapeutic Applications.

Rumeng Shao1, Yixuan Zhang1, Ya Chang1

  • 1School of Science, Minzu University of China, Beijing 100081, China.

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|March 28, 2026
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Summary

New flexible skin electronics use tattoo paper-based graphene-gold conductors. These novel conductors maintain stable electrical performance under strain, enabling advanced wearable human-machine interfaces for sensing and drug delivery.

Keywords:
electronic skingrapheneself-powered devicesmart tattooswearable electronics

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Area of Science:

  • Materials Science
  • Electrical Engineering
  • Biomedical Engineering

Background:

  • Flexible skin electronics are crucial for wearable human-machine interfaces.
  • Challenges include maintaining biocompatibility and stable electrical performance under mechanical deformation.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To develop novel flexible skin conductors with enhanced mechanical stability and conductivity.
  • To create multifunctional on-skin applications for sensing, drug delivery, and human-machine interaction.

Main Methods:

  • Fabrication of tattoo paper-based graphene-gold conductors with a dual conductive pathway.
  • Integration of folding and kirigami structures to mitigate strain effects.
  • Development of waterproof on-skin patches with integrated heaters and an on-skin dialing interface.

Main Results:

  • Conductors exhibit negligible resistance changes across a broad strain range (0-130%).
  • Achieved high initial conductivity of 1.5 × 10^3 S cm^-1.
  • Demonstrated functional waterproof on-skin patches for body heating and drug delivery.
  • Created a functional on-skin dialing interface powered by triboelectric nanogenerators.

Conclusions:

  • Tattoo paper-based graphene-gold conductors offer a promising solution for robust and multifunctional flexible electronics.
  • The developed kirigami and folding structures significantly improve strain tolerance.
  • These advancements pave the way for next-generation wearable devices and human-machine interfaces.