Exosomes: Molecular messengers shaping muscle physiology and growth

Exosomes, a subset of extracellular vesicles, are key mediators of intercellular communication and important regulators of skeletal muscle biology. However, the mechanisms by which they influence muscle growth, metabolism, and interactions with adipose tissue remain underexplored, particularly in livestock and regenerative medicine. This review integrates recent advances elucidating the roles of exosomal cargos, such as microRNAs, proteins, and lipids, in regulating myogenesis, regeneration, fiber-type specification, intramuscular fat deposition, and energy metabolism. It also details the mechanisms by which exosomes modulate key signaling pathways, including the PI3K/Akt/mTOR, TGF-β, Notch, and Wnt/β-catenin pathways, as well as the exosome-mediated cross-talk linking muscle and adipose tissues in metabolic and structural regulation. Furthermore, we examine the potential of engineered exosomes as targeted delivery vehicles to modulate muscle composition, enhance meat quality, and promote tissue regeneration. By integrating mechanistic insights with emerging translational advances, this review highlights the prospective applications of exosome biology in both biomedical research and agricultural biotechnology.