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Production of Organic Acids

Production of Organic Acids

Lactic acid, an important organic acid extensively applied in food, pharmaceutical, and biodegradable polymer industries, is primarily produced via microbial fermentation. This method is favored over chemical synthesis due to its environmental sustainability and capacity for enantiomerically pure product formation. Among various microbial processes, the fermentation of starch-based substrates stands out due to the abundance and renewability of raw materials like corn and potatoes.Hydrolysis of...

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In aerobic fermentations, oxygen is vital for microbial growth and metabolite production. Since air comprises only about 20% oxygen and the gas is poorly soluble in water—just 9 ppm at 20°C—supplying sufficient oxygen becomes a critical challenge, especially in high-demand processes like yeast growth or citric acid production. Even a fully saturated broth may offer only a few seconds of oxygen availability.To address this, sterile or scrubbed air is introduced into the...

Oxidation and Reduction of Organic Molecules

Oxidation and Reduction of Organic Molecules

Energy production within a cell involves many coordinated chemical pathways. Most of these pathways are combinations of oxidation and reduction reactions, which occur at the same time. An oxidation reaction strips an electron from an atom in a compound, and the addition of this electron to another compound is a reduction reaction. Because oxidation and reduction usually occur together, these pairs of reactions are called redox reactions.
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Oxygenic Photosynthesis

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Oxygenic photosynthesis is a fundamental process in which light energy is harnessed to drive the oxidation of water, leading to the production of molecular oxygen (O₂), adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH). This process is essential for sustaining aerobic life on Earth and is primarily carried out by cyanobacteria, algae, and plants. The core of oxygenic photosynthesis lies in the thylakoid membranes, where chlorophyll pigments facilitate...

Oxidation of Alkenes: Syn Dihydroxylation with Osmium Tetraoxide

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Updated: Apr 2, 2026

Utilization of Stop-flow Micro-tubing Reactors for the Development of Organic Transformations

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Published on: January 4, 2018

Late-Stage Oxygenation in Organic Synthesis: From Innate Reactivity to Directed Selectivity in Complex Settings.

Kyriaki Gennaiou¹, Maria Kourgiantaki¹, Kalliopi Mazaraki¹

¹Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece.

Angewandte Chemie (International Ed. in English)

|April 1, 2026

Summary

Late-stage oxygenation (LSO) offers precise modification of complex molecules. Recent advances in selective oxidants, biocatalysis, and photoredox methods enhance molecular diversification for various scientific fields.

Keywords:

C–H functionalization late‐stage oxygenation natural products reaction mechanism selectivities

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Area of Science:

Synthetic Chemistry
Organic Synthesis
Catalysis

Background:

Late-stage oxygenation (LSO) is crucial for modifying complex molecules in pharmaceutical, agrochemical, and materials science.
Demand for efficient, selective, and sustainable synthetic methods drives LSO advancements.
Existing LSO strategies face challenges in scope and applicability.

Purpose of the Study:

To review the conceptual foundations and recent developments in late-stage oxygenation.
To highlight breakthroughs in selective oxidants, biocatalysis, and photoredox methodologies for LSO.
To provide a comprehensive resource for practitioners in LSO.

Main Methods:

Review of chemical and enzymatic approaches to late-stage oxygenation.
Analysis of mechanistic insights and practical applications of LSO.
Consolidation of cutting-edge developments in the field.

Main Results:

Significant expansion in the scope and utility of late-stage oxygenation.
Development of novel selective oxidants and biocatalytic platforms.
Integration of photoredox methodologies for advanced functionalization.

Conclusions:

Late-stage oxygenation is a transformative strategy for molecular diversification.
Advances in chemical and enzymatic methods offer new possibilities for LSO.
This review serves as a guide to current LSO innovations and applications.