Organoids in environmental toxicology: Applications, advantages, and future prospects

With the rapid advancement of industrialization and urbanization, environmental pollution has become increasingly severe, and the diversity of pollutants continues to grow. Public health studies have revealed a significant association between these pollutants and human health, which establishes toxicity research on environmental pollutants as a critical area of investigation. Current environmental toxicology models exhibit considerable limitations, including economic and ethical concerns, lack of physiological relevance, and individual variability, leading to poor translatability of research outcomes. As an emerging in vitro model system, organoid technology offers novel opportunities for environmental toxicology research. Compared with traditional two-dimensional cell cultures and animal models, organoids more accurately recapitulate the structure and function of human organs, providing a more effective platform for elucidating how environmental pollutants affect cells, tissues, and organs. This review outlines the derivation, generation, and applications of organoids and discusses their specific advantages over conventional toxicological approaches. Furthermore, it explores the current applications, challenges, and future directions of organoid models in environmental toxicology. This work aims to facilitate the broader application and development of organoid technology in the field and to provide new strategies for assessing the toxicity and health risks of environmental pollutants.