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Exploring Surrogate Selection for Virucidal Aerosol Testing: A Qualitative Analysis.

Angela Myer1,2, M Worth Calfee1,3, Mariela Monge4

  • 1Homeland Security and Materials Management Division, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, Durham, North Carolina 27709, United States.

Environmental Science & Technology
|April 8, 2026
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

This review examines viral surrogates for testing indoor disinfectants. Enterobacteria phage MS2 is a common, safe choice, but more research is needed for standardized selection frameworks.

Keywords:
aerosolairborne virusdisinfectioninactivationsurrogate selectionsurrogate suitabilityvirus infectivityvirus persistencevirus survivalvirus viability

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Area of Science:

  • Environmental Science
  • Microbiology
  • Public Health

Background:

  • The COVID-19 pandemic increased demand for effective indoor virucidal technologies.
  • Testing pathogens directly requires high biosafety levels, limiting realistic environmental simulations.
  • Viral surrogates offer a safer alternative for evaluating virucidal efficacy in diverse settings.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To analyze the selection and application of viral surrogates in aerosol, surface, and suspension tests.
  • To identify commonalities and gaps in current surrogate selection practices.
  • To inform the development of standardized frameworks for viral surrogate selection.

Main Methods:

  • A qualitative scoping review of 133 studies was performed.
  • Analysis focused on surrogate selection criteria and usage across different testing modalities.
  • Trends, knowledge gaps, and future research directions were identified.

Main Results:

  • Enterobacteria phage MS2 (MS2) and other bacteriophages are frequently used due to safety and practicality.
  • Limited studies concurrently test pathogens and surrogates, highlighting context-dependent suitability.
  • Surrogate selection considerations are relevant beyond virucide testing, including virus persistence and transmission.

Conclusions:

  • Standardized frameworks for viral surrogate selection are needed for reliable virucidal efficacy testing.
  • Current practices show a reliance on convenient surrogates like MS2, with less emphasis on direct validation.
  • The findings support broader applications of surrogate research for understanding airborne virus behavior and control.