Bottom-Up Coacervate-Based Artificial Cells: Integrating Cellular Hallmarks into Complex Life-Like Systems

Living cells are remarkably sophisticated entities that form the basis of life. Bottom-up artificial cell research focuses on reconstructing their essential functions and behaviors in life-like compartments using synthetic and natural building blocks, which can advance our understanding of fundamental biological processes and drive technological and biomedical applications. In this review, we focus our discussion on recent developments in bottom-up artificial cell research with a particular emphasis on coacervate-based artificial cell systems that integrate multiple cellular hallmarks. We delineate how enhanced structural mimicry through organized compartmentalization affords improved control over function. We then examine how energy supply can be coupled to metabolic processes, growth, and adaptive responses in artificial cells. We also survey emerging systems that enable artificial cells to communicate with other artificial and living cells through responsive signaling and functional interactions. Finally, we present our vision on the opportunities and directions for artificial cell research moving forward.