Lichen biomonitoring discriminates trace element sources from copper mining and atmospheric deposition in southern...

Copper mining in southern Peru represents a globally significant potential source of atmospheric trace element emissions, yet ecosystem-scale exposure patterns across the region's contrasting landscapes remain poorly constrained. We assessed trace element accumulation in lichens from fog-dependent coastal lomas (fog oases) and mining-proximal Andean shrubland along Peru's major copper production corridor, targeting 11 elements (Al, As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Fe, Mn, Hg, Ni, Pb, Zn). We analyzed 138 samples (33 species) from 35 stations spanning 683-3756 m elevation. Multivariate analysis showed significant ecosystem differentiation (PERMANOVA, R² = 0.183, p < 0.001). Cu concentrations were 2.8-fold higher in Andean shrubland than coastal lomas (161 vs 59 mg kg^-1; median EF = 111), whereas coastal lomas exhibited higher Hg (2.6-fold), Cr (2.7-fold), and Cd (1.7-fold); Hg was -1) in 85% of Andean samples. Correlations among lithogenic elements (Al-Fe-Cr-Ni; r_s ≥ 0.83) indicated substantial geogenic contributions, while Cu-Zn co-enrichment (r_s = 0.78) supported chalcophile inputs consistent with mining proximity within a porphyry Cu corridor. Species-specific patterns reflected the interaction between ecosystem context and thallus morphology, with ecosystem context as the dominant driver; Umbilicaria polyphylla (231 mg kg^-1 Cu; Andean shrubland) and Canoparmelia sp.1 (0.23 mg kg^-1 Hg; coastal lomas) were the strongest ecosystem-specific accumulators among replicated taxa (n ≥ 3). Because we did not measure deposition fluxes, collect paired soil/substrate backgrounds, or quantify station-level wind and fog metrics, inferences are limited to relative spatial patterns rather than quantitative source contributions or a dominant mechanism. These findings provide contemporary reference patterns for trace-element exposure in southern Peru and support multi-species lichen biomonitoring for spatial screening across mining-coastal gradients.