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Whether solid, liquid, or gas, a substance's state depends on the order and arrangement of its particles (atoms, molecules, or ions). Particles in the solid pack closely together, generally in a pattern. The particles vibrate about their fixed positions but do not move or squeeze past their neighbors. In liquids, although the particles are closely spaced, they are randomly arranged. The position of the particles are not fixed—that is, they are free to move past their neighbors to...
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A phase transition is the process in which a substance changes from one state of matter to another, like from a solid to a liquid, liquid to gas, or vice versa, at a specific temperature and under given pressure conditions. This change is spontaneous and is affected by alterations in temperature and pressure. These parameters impact the strength of the forces between molecules (intermolecular forces) in the substance.During a phase transition, both the initial and final phases of the substance...
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Phase Transitions: Melting and Freezing02:39

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Heating a crystalline solid increases the average energy of its atoms, molecules, or ions, and the solid gets hotter. At some point, the added energy becomes large enough to partially overcome the forces holding the molecules or ions of the solid in their fixed positions, and the solid begins the process of transitioning to the liquid state or melting. At this point, the temperature of the solid stops rising, despite the continual input of heat, and it remains constant until all of the solid is...
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Some solids can transition directly into the gaseous state, bypassing the liquid state, via a process known as sublimation. At room temperature and standard pressure, a piece of dry ice (solid CO2) sublimes, appearing to gradually disappear without ever forming any liquid. Snow and ice sublimate at temperatures below the melting point of water, a slow process that may be accelerated by winds and the reduced atmospheric pressures at high altitudes. When solid iodine is warmed, the solid sublimes...
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Phase Diagram Characterization Using Magnetic Beads as Liquid Carriers
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Measurement-induced phase transitions in informational active matter.

Bryan VanSaders1, Michel Fruchart2, Vincenzo Vitelli1,3,4

  • 1James Franck Institute, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA.

PNAS Nexus
|April 13, 2026
PubMed
Summary

This study introduces adaptive particles that use local measurements to process environmental noise, creating collective behaviors like flocking without external work. This "informational activity" drives active states and offers new applications in self-organizing systems.

Keywords:
active matterflockinginformation enginesmeasurement-induced phase transitionsreinforcement learning

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Area of Science:

  • Statistical Mechanics
  • Active Matter Physics
  • Information Theory

Background:

  • Non-equilibrium systems often function as many-ratchet systems, processing environmental noise via local measurements and information processing, akin to Maxwell's demon.
  • These systems challenge traditional coarse-graining methods due to their reliance on decision-making protocols rather than simple force laws.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate a many-body generalization of the Maxwell demon problem using a fluid of adaptive particles.
  • To elucidate how microscopic decision-making protocols, rather than forces, generate macroscopic active states sustained by measurements.

Main Methods:

  • Utilized a combination of information-theoretic, kinetic, and hydrodynamic tools.
  • Analyzed collective behavior in adaptive particles that bias noise-driven scattering events based on local measurements.

Main Results:

  • Demonstrated the emergence of macroscopic active states driven by microscopic decision-making protocols and continuous measurements.
  • Observed an informational flocking phenomenon where the order parameter is information-bounded, potentially indicating a measurement-induced phase transition.
  • Identified "informational activity" that compresses phase space without work, leading to deviations from equilibrium scaling with noise magnitude.

Conclusions:

  • Microscopic decision-making protocols are key drivers of active states in non-equilibrium systems.
  • Measurement-induced phase transitions and informational activity offer novel mechanisms for self-organization and pattern formation.
  • Potential applications include noise-induced patterning in microrobot swarms and programmable colloids in turbulent environments.