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The Thyroid Gland

The Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck and covers the anterior surface of the trachea. The gland has two lateral lobes connected by a thin tissue mass called the isthmus. Internally, each lobe comprises many small spherical structures known as thyroid follicles, surrounded by a network of blood vessels.
The follicles have a central cavity lined by simple cuboidal to squamous epithelial cells called follicular cells. These cells produce the glycoprotein...

Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones

Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones

Low blood levels of the thyroid hormones — triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) — signal the hypothalamus to release the thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). TRH then reaches the pituitary gland and stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone(TSH) into the bloodstream.
Upon reaching the thyroid gland, TSH stimulates the follicular cells' active uptake of iodide ions from the blood. The ions diffuse to the apical surface of the cells and are oxidized to iodine. The...

Functions of Thyroid Hormones

Functions of Thyroid Hormones

The thyroid hormone (TH) plays a pivotal role in the intricate orchestration of physiological processes, exerting profound effects on development, metabolism, and homeostasis throughout different life stages.
TH is indispensable for the normal development and maturation of the skeletal, muscular, and nervous systems during fetal and childhood growth. It facilitates bone mineral turnover and regulates protein synthesis in developing tissues, contributing significantly to overall growth and...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Apr 15, 2026

An Ex vivo Culture System to Study Thyroid Development

An Ex vivo Culture System to Study Thyroid Development

Published on: June 6, 2014

Human thyroid organoids: tools for understanding thyroid diseases and development.

Mírian Romitti¹, Sabine Costagliola²

¹Institut de Recherche Interdisciplinaire en Biologie Humaine et Moléculaire (IRIBHM), Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium.

Nature Reviews. Endocrinology

|April 13, 2026

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Thyroid organoids derived from stem cells show promise for studying thyroid development and disease. Further research could lead to new therapies for hypothyroidism.

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Last Updated: Apr 15, 2026

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Area of Science:

Developmental Biology
Stem Cell Biology
Endocrinology

Background:

Thyroid organogenesis involves conserved molecular and cellular processes.
In vivo studies identified key regulators of thyroid development and hormone synthesis.
Thyroid organoids are being developed from various pluripotent and somatic cell sources.

Purpose of the Study:

To review current thyroid organoid models.
To discuss their application in understanding thyroid development and disease.
To explore clinical translation challenges and therapeutic potential for hypothyroidism.

Main Methods:

Derivation of thyroid organoids from mouse and human pluripotent stem cells (embryonic stem cells, induced pluripotent stem cells).
Utilization of fetal and adult thyroid tissues for organoid generation.
Application of directed differentiation protocols involving chemical signaling modulators and transcription factor overexpression.

Main Results:

Successful derivation of thyroid organoids from diverse cell sources.
Protocols yield thyroid progenitors with variable maturation, purity, and functionality.
Limited success in generating organoids that fully recapitulate thyroid function in vitro and in vivo.

Conclusions:

Thyroid organoids are valuable tools for studying thyroid developmental biology and modeling thyroid diseases.
Significant challenges remain in translating thyroid organoid technology for clinical applications.
Thyroid organoids may offer a future therapeutic avenue for hypothyroidism, including congenital and refractory cases.