In vivo models to study gastrointestinal Salmonella infections

Given that non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) remains a leading cause of foodborne infections worldwide, efforts to detect and combat these pathogens continue to be a major focus of research. Enhancing Salmonella prevention and treatment strategies requires a comprehensive understanding of infection dynamics and host‒pathogen interactions. Although in vitro models can provide preliminary insights into these interactions, animal studies remain crucial in grasping the complexities. In this regard, invertebrate systems can be valuable for conducting high-throughput screenings, while higher-order animals can offer insights into more complex interactions. As no model is capable of fully reflecting the natural infection conditions, a combinatory approach, integrating insights from different models, is often required. Here, we review the state-of-the-art in vivo models used to study NTS infections, including the Caenorhabditis elegans, Danio rerio, chicken, murine, bovine, and pig models. By balancing their employability with their physiological and ecological relevance, we provide a thorough comparison of these models.