Linking health risks, pollution indices, and contamination sources in urban soils of Central Serbia

Serbia represents a valuable setting for improving soil pollution monitoring, particularly in urban environments facing regulatory and infrastructural constraints. In a country with some of the highest cancer incidence and mortality rates in Europe, persistent soil contamination poses a critical environmental and public health concern. This study provides an integrated assessment of radiological and chemical health risks in the soils of one of Serbia's largest cities, impacted by intensive industrial activities and war-related damage. Activity concentrations of radionuclides and metal contents were determined using gamma-ray spectrometry and appropriate analytical techniques. The study area was found to have an elevated pollution status, with Cr and Ni identified as the dominant contaminants. Average radiological cancer risk was comparable to global averages, but higher in residential than in industrial areas of the city. Locally elevated chemical carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks were observed for children, with Cr and As recognized as the primary contributors. Health risk indices were moderately correlated with pollution parameters, highlighting the significance of element-specific toxicity and exposure patterns. The results of source apportionment suggest that the distributions of As, Co, Mn, and natural radionuclides largely reflect the prevailing geochemical background and soil retention processes, whereas other contaminants, particularly Cu and Cr, appear to be more strongly influenced by anthropogenic activities. Local industry, traffic, and coal combustion emerged as potentially dominant sources of pollution in the area. No significant differences were observed between two lithological units. The study provides a solid basis for soil quality assessment and health risk management.