Urban heat exposure patterns and domain-specific executive function in adolescents

Rising urban temperatures pose emerging risks to adolescent neurodevelopment, yet the impact of specific heat exposure patterns on executive function (EF) remains poorly understood. This large-scale study investigated the associations between residential daytime land surface temperature (LSTD) and objective EF performance among 3752 urban adolescents in China. We utilized high-resolution MODIS MOD11A2 satellite data to deconstruct LSTD into monthly minimum, mean, and maximum values, capturing baseline, routine, and extreme heat. Core EFs were assessed using computerized tasks. Generalized linear mixed models identified domain-specific associations: higher LSTD was associated with longer reaction times for working memory and cognitive flexibility, but not for inhibition. Crucially, association patterns varied by exposure metric: LSTD_min exhibited the most pervasive adverse effects across tasks, suggesting unavoidable baseline exposure, whereas LSTD_mean exerted the strongest magnitude of effect on complex tasks (e.g., 2-back RT: β = 18.01 ms/°C; 95% CI: 8.23, 27.79), reflecting the toll of chronic physiological load. In contrast, LSTD_max affected only cognitive flexibility, likely due to behavioral avoidance of extremes. Residential green space significantly attenuated the associations of heat with cognitive flexibility, while sulfur dioxide (SO₂) pollution synergistically exacerbated working memory impairments. The associations were more pronounced in boys and in adolescents with higher parental education. Our findings demonstrate that the cognitive burden of urban heat is not uniform but is shaped by exposure pattern, behavioral adaptation, and environmental context. They highlight chronic routine heat as a primary threat and identify urban greening as a potent neuroprotective strategy for climate adaptation.