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Direct benefits are not necessary for the evolution of multicellularity
Daniel Jorge1, Merlijn Staps1, Yuriy Pichugin1,2
1Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA.
Nature Ecology & Evolution
|April 20, 2026
Summary
Multicellularity evolved without direct benefits, driven by indirect advantages like escaping competition and exploiting environments. This challenges previous assumptions about the evolution of early multicellular life.
Area of Science:
- Evolutionary biology
- Theoretical ecology
- Origin of life studies
Background:
- The evolution of multicellularity is a major transition in life's history.
- Multicellularity typically incurs costs, necessitating significant benefits for its emergence.
- Direct benefits, where groups outperform individuals in identical conditions, are considered sufficient but not necessarily essential.
Purpose of the Study:
- To explore if direct benefits are essential for the evolution of multicellularity.
- To investigate alternative mechanisms driving the transition to multicellular life.
- To model the evolution of multicellularity in spatially heterogeneous environments.
Main Methods:
- Development of a general mathematical model for multicellularity evolution.
- Analysis of indirect benefits arising from spatial distribution differences.
- Application to a case study of Proterozoic Ocean multicellular eukaryotes.
Main Results:
- Direct benefits are not necessary for the evolution of multicellularity.
- Indirect benefits, such as escape from competition and enhanced environmental exploitation, can drive the transition.
- Spatial differences between groups and unicellular ancestors can generate these indirect benefits.
Conclusions:
- Ecological factors and indirect benefits play a crucial role in the evolution of multicellularity.
- Multicellularity can evolve even without direct advantages, through mechanisms like competitive release.
- Understanding these indirect benefits is key to explaining major evolutionary transitions.
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