Spatial Heterogeneity in Women's Financial Inclusion in India: An application of small area estimation
Swati Srivastava1, Kaushalendra Kumar2, Lotus McDougal3
1GENDER Project, International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India.
Plos One
|April 28, 2026
Summary
Closing financial inclusion gaps for women in India requires granular data. This study uses advanced estimation techniques to map district-level financial inclusion, revealing significant variations and informing targeted policy interventions.
Area of Science:
- Socioeconomics
- Demographics
- Public Policy
Background:
- India faces challenges in women's financial inclusion due to a lack of granular, sub-state level data.
- Existing data limitations hinder targeted interventions to close financial inclusion gaps.
Purpose of the Study:
- To generate district-level estimates of women's financial inclusion components in India.
- To identify variations and trends in women's bank account ownership, microcredit knowledge, and usage.
Main Methods:
- Utilized model-based small-area estimation techniques.
- Linked National Family Health Survey (NFHS) data (2015-16, 2019-21) with 2011 Indian Census data.
- Generated estimates for 640 districts across India.
Main Results:
- Revealed significant intra- and inter-state variations in financial inclusion indicators.
- Bank account ownership ranged from 56.1% to 95.4%; microcredit knowledge from 11.8% to 84.9%.
- Observed substantial within-state clustering and higher increases in previously underserved districts.
Conclusions:
- Significant intra-state disparities exist in women's financial inclusion rates and changes over time.
- The developed approach offers a valuable tool for policymakers to pinpoint and address remaining inclusion gaps.
- Highlights the need for localized strategies to enhance women's financial inclusion across India.
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