Understanding Europe's skills shortage: Patterns of participation in formal and non-formal education and training

Technological advancements, environmental commitments and demographic shifts are rapidly reshaping Europe's labour markets, and thus the skills needed to succeed within them. These changes are driving growth in some industries while leading to contractions in others. Adult learning, both in formal and non-formal contexts, provides pathways for reskilling and upskilling, which are critical for adapting to these shifts. Recognising the importance of education and training, the European Union (EU) set a target that, by 2025, at least 47 per cent of adults aged 24-64 should have participated in some form of learning, education or training during the last 12 months. Using data from the EU Labour Force Survey (EU-LFS), which ran from 2013 to 2022, this article explores progress towards that target, specifically examining the relationship between personal and work-related factors and participation in different forms of learning. The results show that participation in adult education and training has grown significantly, particularly in job-related, non-formal training. Across countries and over time, women participate at higher rates than men in all forms of learning. After adjusting for potential confounding factors, including gender, training rates were found to be highest in highly skilled occupations and lowest in low-skilled occupations. Additionally, individuals in industries with significant skills mismatches are more likely to participate in learning. The analysis indicates progress in addressing skills shortages but raises doubts about whether EU countries have met the 2025 target. These findings underscore the need for targeted policies to address participation in learning, education and training and to support the upskilling and reskilling necessary for the evolving European labour market.

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11159-025-10175-0.