Carbon dots in laboratory medicine: synthesis, properties, and applications

Carbon dots (CDs), zero-dimensional carbon-based nanomaterials, have significantly advanced laboratory medicine due to their high photoluminescence quantum yield, excellent biocompatibility, and versatile surface functionalization. This review systematically summarizes CDs' synthesis strategies (top-down and bottom-up approaches), structural/optical characteristics, and diverse applications in the field including the sensitive detection of biomolecules (proteins, nucleic acids, and small biomolecules), microbial identification, cell/tissue imaging, and diagnosis of cancer, infectious diseases, and other disorders. Despite challenges such as poor reproducibility, lack of standardized protocols, and hurdles in clinical translation, CDs hold great promise for enabling sensitive, rapid, and personalized diagnostic solutions. Future directions focus on developing multifunctional probes, advancing clinical translation, integrating with artificial intelligence and cutting-edge technologies (microfluidics), and enabling single-cell analysis, positioning CDs to revolutionize precision diagnostics and personalized medicine.