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Updated: May 5, 2026

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Fabrication and Characterization of Nerolidol-Based Invasomes: Loading, Stability and Antimicrobial Applications.

Gaetano Lamberti1, Raffaella De Piano1, Diego Caccavo1

  • 1Dipartimento di Ingegneria Industriale, Università degli Studi di Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II n.132, 84084 Fisciano, SA, Italy.

Pharmaceutics
|May 4, 2026
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Summary

Nerolidol invasomes were developed using a controlled process, establishing optimal loading limits (1-2%) for stable, effective antimicrobial delivery. This scalable method enhances nerolidol

Keywords:
Nerolidolantimicrobic activityinvasomesnanoliposomessimil-microfluidic technology

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Area of Science:

  • Pharmaceutical Technology
  • Nanotechnology
  • Drug Delivery Systems

Background:

  • Nerolidol (NER), a sesquiterpene alcohol, exhibits antimicrobial properties but faces limitations due to hydrophobicity, instability, and cytotoxicity.
  • Invasomes, liposomes incorporating terpenes, present a potential strategy for improving NER delivery.
  • Optimal NER loading for invasome integrity and stability remains undetermined.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To produce Nerolidol-loaded invasomes using a controlled simil-microfluidic coaxial injection process.
  • To determine the maximum NER loading capacity compatible with invasome structural integrity and stability.
  • To evaluate the impact of NER loading on invasome colloidal properties and physical stability.

Main Methods:

  • Fabrication of unloaded liposomes to optimize process parameters and ensure reproducibility.
  • Preparation of invasome formulations with varying NER concentrations to assess loading limits.
  • Characterization of invasomes for vesicle size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential (ζ-potential), encapsulation efficiency, and physical stability.

Main Results:

  • High NER loads led to turbidity, increased vesicle size due to agglomeration, and structural instability.
  • Formulations with approximately 1-2% NER achieved high encapsulation efficiency (>95%), a Z-average of ~300 nm, and a zeta potential magnitude |ζ| > 30 mV.
  • Optimized NER invasomes demonstrated satisfactory physical stability within the identified loading window.

Conclusions:

  • A realistic loading window of 1-2% NER was identified for stable and effective invasome formulations.
  • The simil-microfluidic approach is suitable for producing scalable and well-controlled NER invasomes.
  • Nerolidol invasomes represent a promising platform for antimicrobial applications, potentially including animal feed.