Associations of crash, penalty, and demographic factors with hazard perception among Iranian professional drivers

Hazard perception plays a pivotal role in preventing road accidents. Despite control measures in developing countries, crash and injury rates remain high, indicating limitations in current strategies. Framed within Endsley's Situational Awareness Theory, this study examined associations between crash history, traffic penalties, and demographic factors (age and education) with hazard perception among Iranian professional drivers.

This cross-sectional study included 220 Iranian professional car drivers (age range: 23-75 years; M = 48.3, SD = 10.4). Participants completed a demographic questionnaire and the standardized Hazard Perception Test (HPT) validated for the Iranian context. Data were analyzed using univariate tests and a General Linear Model (GLM).

The mean hazard perception score was remarkably low at 35.60 ± 15.68 (out of 100), with an average error rate of 3.68 ± 1.91 missed hazards. Drivers with no crash history in the past three years scored 11.68 points higher on average than those with crash involvement (p < 0.001). Higher penalty frequency was associated with lower hazard perception scores (p < 0.001). In the GLM, crash history (β = 11.68, 95% CI: 8.14-15.21, p < 0.001) and penalty frequency (β = -3.62, p < 0.001) remained significant predictors, while age, education, gender, and driving experience showed no independent association (all p > 0.05). This performance level is substantially lower than scores typically reported in high-income countries with mandatory HPT in licensing (often >50-60% among experienced drivers).

Crash and penalty history were strongly linked to poorer hazard perception, highlighting behavioral factors as key risk markers. The HPT effectively distinguished high- from low-risk drivers, supporting its use as a screening tool for targeted interventions in settings with limited systemic protections. These findings extend Situational Awareness theory to low- and middle-income contexts and emphasize the need for context-specific training.