Marine environmental risks from armed conflict in the Persian Gulf: Past warnings, present urgency

The Persian Gulf is both an ecologically fragile marine system and a global energy chokepoint. Past conflicts have shown that warfare in the region can cause extensive and persistent damage to coastal and marine habitats. Today, that risk is amplified by the Gulf's shallow, semi-enclosed character, restricted exchange with the open ocean, extreme temperature and salinity, expanding hypoxia, and heavy reliance on desalination and other seawater-dependent infrastructure. Armed conflict could therefore trigger oil and chemical releases, chronic contamination, and habitat degradation, with cascading consequences for fisheries, water security, shipping, and industrial operations. Because these impacts are foreseeable and could be severe, prolonged, and transboundary, environmental preparedness in the Gulf should be integrated into regional security, infrastructure protection, and emergency planning.