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Pollination and Flower Structure

Pollination and Flower Structure

Flowers are the reproductive, seed-producing structures of angiosperms. Typically, flowers consist of sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels. Sepals and petals are the vegetative flower organs. Stamens and carpels are the reproductive organs.

Genetics of Speciation

Genetics of Speciation

Speciation is the evolutionary process resulting in the formation of new, distinct species—groups of reproductively isolated populations.

Frequency-dependent Selection

Frequency-dependent Selection

When the fitness of a trait is influenced by how common it is (i.e., its frequency) relative to different traits within a population, this is referred to as frequency-dependent selection. Frequency-dependent selection may occur between species or within a single species. This type of selection can either be positive—with more common phenotypes having higher fitness—or negative, with rarer phenotypes conferring increased fitness.

Gene Flow

Gene Flow

Gene flow is the transfer of genes among populations, resulting from either the dispersal of gametes or from the migration of individuals.

Formation of Species

Formation of Species

Speciation describes the formation of one or more new species from one or sometimes multiple original species. The resulting species are discrete from the parent species, and barriers to reproduction will typically exist. There are two primary mechanisms, speciation with and without geographic isolation—allopatric and sympatric speciation, respectively.

Background and Environment Affect Phenotype

Background and Environment Affect Phenotype

Although the genetic makeup of an organism plays a major role in determining the phenotype, there are also several environmental factors, such as temperature, oxygen availability, presence of mutagens, that can alter an organism’s phenotype.
An example of how genetic background affects phenotype can be seen in horses. The Extension gene in horses is responsible for their coat color. A wild-type gene (EE) produces black pigment in the coat, while a mutant gene (ee) produces red pigment. A...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 8, 2026

Field Experiments of Pollination Ecology: The Case of Lycoris sanguinea var. sanguinea

Field Experiments of Pollination Ecology: The Case of Lycoris sanguinea var. sanguinea

Published on: November 25, 2016

Warming-driven shifts in floral traits generate flower-pollinator size mismatch and decrease reproductive output.

Tingfa Dong^1,2, You-Qin Yang¹, Deng-Fei Li¹

¹Key Laboratory of Southwest China Wildlife Resource Conservation (Ministry of Education), China West Normal University, Nanchong, Sichuan, China.

|May 7, 2026

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Climate change alters flower size, creating mismatches with bumblebees. This size mismatch reduces pollination efficiency and seed production, impacting plant reproduction.

Keywords:

climate warming nectar spur length plant–pollinator interactions pollination efficiency reproductive success size mismatch

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Area of Science:

Ecology
Evolutionary Biology
Climate Change Biology

Background:

Plant-pollinator interactions are vital for ecosystem function and agriculture.
Climate change poses a threat to these interactions through altered environmental conditions.
Previous research suggests temperature changes can affect floral traits and pollinator morphology, potentially disrupting mutualisms.

Purpose of the Study:

To experimentally investigate the impact of simulated warming on plant-pollinator size matching.
To link warming-induced changes in floral traits to pollination efficiency and reproductive success in Impatiens oxyanthera.
To determine if size mismatch, rather than other factors, mediates climate change effects on pollination.

Main Methods:

Conducted a 2-year field experiment simulating increased temperatures.
Measured floral traits (corolla tube and nectar spur length) and bumblebee visitor size.
Performed a trait manipulation experiment to isolate the effect of nectar spur length on pollination and seed set.

Main Results:

Simulated warming significantly reduced corolla tube and nectar spur length in Impatiens oxyanthera.
Warming did not alter bumblebee visitor size, leading to a floral-pollinator size mismatch.
Reduced nectar spur length decreased bumblebee visit duration, pollen deposition, and seed production, independent of bumblebee size.

Conclusions:

Climate change-induced size mismatches between flowers and pollinators can disrupt pollination services.
This mechanism contributes to reproductive failure in plants beyond range shifts and phenological changes.
Understanding these trait-matching dynamics is crucial for predicting climate change impacts on biodiversity.