[Doping in recreational sports]

Doping is commonly perceived as being primarily associated with professional sports rather than recreational sports. This article is a discussion paper and addresses doping in recreational sports from conceptual, methodological, and empirical perspectives. Established doping definitions, particularly those of the World Anti-Doping Agency, are only partially transferable to recreational sports contexts due to their strong focus on organizational affiliation and competitive settings. For large segments of recreational sport, the concept of performance-enhancing substance use therefore provides a more appropriate description.Assessing the prevalence of such use is methodologically challenging due to the sensitive nature of the topic and the lack of control mechanisms. Indirect survey techniques reduce socially desirable responding and yield more realistic estimates. The unrelated question model (UQM) is a randomized response technique that ensures full anonymity and enables robust prevalence estimates of sensitive behaviors at the population level.Empirical findings using the UQM among recreational athletes in endurance, fitness, and bodybuilding contexts indicate that the use of performance-enhancing substances is not a marginal phenomenon. Prevalence estimates suggest a relevant and stable level over time. Strong associations are observed with non-therapeutic use of pain medication and an increasing medicalization of performance optimization. Evidence of access via healthcare structures highlights the structural embedding of this phenomenon. Overall, the use of performance-enhancing substances in recreational sport represents a socially and medically relevant field of action that requires differentiated prevention strategies and greater integration into medical education and training.