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Updated: May 12, 2026
A Protocol for the Administration of Real-Time fMRI Neurofeedback Training
Published on: August 24, 2017
Effects of EEG neurofeedback and training interventions on golf putting performance: a systematic review and
Zhenjun Li1, Heng Liu2, Chao Liu2
1School of Tourism and Public Administration, Zhuhai College of Science and Technology, Zhuhai, China.
Background:
Electroencephalography neurofeedback (EEG-NFT) is used to modulate brain function to enhance golf putting performance. However, the effectiveness of EEG-NFT and its relationship with non-EEG training interventions in improving putting performance remain unclear.
Methods:
Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines and the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) registration (CRD420251068586), this study systematically searched multiple databases up to 8 June 2025. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) investigating EEG-NFT and other training interventions for golf putting were included. The meta-analyses employed random-effects models, with subgroup analyses conducted to examine moderators.
Results:
A total of 12 RCTs involving 424 participants were included. The overall analysis revealed a significant positive effect on putting performance (standardized mean difference, SMD = 1.33; 95% CI: 0.36-2.29; p = 0.007), though with substantial heterogeneity (I2 = 94%). Subgroup analyses demonstrated that skill level significantly moderated the intervention effects (p = 0.0003), with novices showing the largest improvement (SMD = 2.10). Crucially, intervention efficacy was strongly dependent on both the anatomical specificity and frequency band targeting: central region-sensorimotor rhythm (Cz-SMR)-NFT demonstrated robust positive effects (SMD = 1.12, 95% CI: 0.59-1.66), while inhibitory protocols targeting Mu rhythms (SMD = -1.84) and frontal midline theta (SMD = -1.92) showed significant negative effects. Non-EEG training interventions also exhibited positive effects on putting performance, with skill practice-based interventions showing comparable efficacy to effective EEG-NFT protocols in novice golfers.
Conclusion:
EEG-NFT can enhance putting performance, but success requires precise protocol selection aligned with skill level and neural targets. Cz-SMR enhancement appears to be reliable, whereas non-specific suppression may be detrimental. Future research should establish standardized protocols and conduct larger RCTs to validate these findings.
Systematic Review Registration:
https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID=1068586, identifier (CRD420251068586).
