The changes in perceived self-efficacy, academic engagement, and empathy following simulation-based learning among...

Physiotherapy (PT) education must foster both clinical competencies and non-technical skills such as communication, empathy, and self-efficacy to prepare students for professional practice. Simulation-Based Learning (SBL) offers a structured and safe environment to develop these skills. While the benefits of SBL have been documented in nursing and medical education, evidence in PT programs, particularly across different academic years, remains limited. This study examined changes in perceived self-efficacy, academic engagement, and empathy following SBL participation, and to explore differences between second-, third-, and fourth-year PT students.

A prospective quasi-experimental study was conducted between December 2023 and June 2024 involving second-, third-, and fourth-year undergraduate PT students from a single Spanish university (corresponding to the fourth, sixth, and eighth semesters, respectively). Students participated in SBL sessions designed according to international standards and adapted to their academic level. Outcomes were assessed pre- and post-SBL through validated questionnaires: the Academic Situation-Specific Perceived Self-Efficacy Scale, the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale for Students, and the Jefferson Scale of Empathy. All instruments demonstrated adequate internal consistency in the study sample (Chronbach's α ≥ 0.80). Post-SBL perceptions were further assessed using the Student Satisfaction and Self-Confidence in Learning Questionnaire and the Educational Practices Questionnaire-Spanish Version.

Out of 451 eligible students, 409 participated in the baseline assessment and 378 completed post-SBL assessments. Statistically significant improvements were found in self-efficacy (p = 0.001), academic engagement (vigor, absorption, and total score; p = 0.008; p = 0.007, and p = 0.023, respectively), and empathy (compassionate care and total score; p < 0.001, and p = 0.007, respectively) across the full sample. When results were examined by academic year, patterns of change differed, with third- and fourth-year students showing consistent improvements across most dimensions, while second-year students exhibited more variable responses, including small decreases in selected engagement and empathy subscales. Post-SBL evaluations indicated high levels of satisfaction and self-confidence in learning, with large effect sizes observed in the more advanced academic years. Students' perceptions indicated strong endorsement of SBL practices, especially in high expectations and learning diversity.

SBL was associated with improvements in key learning-related competencies, particularly among students in more advanced academic years. Differences across cohorts highlight the need to tailor SBL design to students' developmental stage, especially during early exposure. Future studies should incorporate control groups, qualitative data, and follow-up assessments to better understand the sustainability and contextual factors influencing SBL outcomes.

NCT06852482 (registered on 28 February 2025).