Wetlands and warfare - implications for hydrologic and biogeochemical ecosystem functions

Wetlands deliver unique hydrologic and biogeochemical functions, including floodwater detention, wave energy attenuation, and the retention and transformation of elements and compounds. The concept of warfare ecology provides a framework to evaluate ecosystem functions throughout wars three cyclical phases (i.e., preparation, active conflict, and rebuilding). Little research focuses on warfare's implications for wetland functions, and most available literature targets wildlife habitat effects. In response, this synthesis examines wetland hydrologic and biogeochemical functional responses to warfare. Wetland hydrologic functions reduce infrastructure flood risk by dampening storm surge and flood peaks, improving military installation resiliency. Wetlands dynamic aerobic and anaerobic conditions improve water quality and degrade or immobilize potential contaminants, including compounds produced for warfare or released during conflict. The warfare preparation phase impacts wetland hydrologic and biogeochemical functions via the drainage, dredging, or filling of wetlands to construct military installations and other infrastructure; the production of munitions and other compounds; and the conservation of wetlands to support training activities requiring large open areas. During active conflict, wetland hydrology may be altered (drained o4r flooded) in pursuit of both offensive and defensive military objectives, and biogeochemical functions are modified by the intentional or unintentional introduction of unique elements or compounds into the environment. The post-conflict (rebuilding) phase provides opportunities for wetland creation, restoration, and enhancement to improve hydrologic and biogeochemical functions that contribute to strategic objectives. As military organizations increasingly recognize the benefits wetlands provide, more research quantifying wetland hydrologic and biogeochemical functions within the warfare ecology context is recommended to inform natural resource management.