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Voxel Printing Anatomy: Design and Fabrication of Realistic, Presurgical Planning Models through Bitmap Printing

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Published on: February 9, 2022

Voxel-Scale Conversion Mapping Informs Intrinsic Resolution in Stereolithographic Additive Manufacturing.

Tobin E Brown¹, Veruska Malavé¹, Callie I Higgins²

¹Applied Chemicals and Materials Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, Colorado 80305, United States.

ACS Applied Polymer Materials

|May 22, 2026

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

High-resolution 3D printing accuracy is limited by polymerization and diffusion. Controlling these processes is key to achieving dimensionally accurate, mechanically uniform parts in stereolithography.

Keywords:

additive manufacturing computational fluid dynamics photopolymerization rheology scanning probe microscopy

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Area of Science:

Materials Science
Chemical Engineering
Polymer Chemistry

Background:

High-resolution stereolithography (HSL) often produces printed parts with significant geometric deviations from the intended design.
These inaccuracies stem from complex reaction dynamics occurring at the voxel scale during the photopolymerization process.

Purpose of the Study:

To develop and apply a novel technique for measuring local photopolymerization rates.
To investigate the interplay between polymerization kinetics and oligomer diffusion in thiol-ene resins during HSL.

Main Methods:

Utilized a nanocylinder-tipped atomic force microscope (AFM) cantilever to measure local photopolymerization rates.
Correlated cantilever drag force during oscillation to resin viscosity and reaction extent.
Employed fluid dynamics simulations for micrometer-scale measurement localization and resonance-based detection for submillisecond temporal resolution.

Main Results:

Oligomer diffusion length scales were found to be significant relative to printed structure sizes in thiol-ene resins.
Part resolution was determined to be a balance between polymerization rate and diffusion.
Increased light intensity at a constant dose reduced local conversion and increased geometric aberrations in printed test structures.

Conclusions:

The competition between polymerization and diffusion critically impacts dimensional accuracy in stereolithography.
Radical polymerization mechanisms lead to counterintuitive effects of light intensity on conversion and diffusion.
Enhanced control over both polymerization and diffusion is essential for producing dimensionally accurate and mechanically homogeneous 3D printed parts.