Djulis beverage attenuates gastric mucosal injury by modulating oxidative stress and inflammation

In this study, a djulis (Chenopodium formosanum)-based beverage (DB) was developed using Taguchi optimization of enzymatic hydrolysis, and its gastroprotective effects were evaluated in an indomethacin-induced gastric injury model in rats, with an oat-based beverage (OB) as a cereal comparator. The optimized hydrolysis conditions (70 °C, pH 8, 90 min) yielded DB with enhanced protein-derived components and a richer phenolic and flavonoid profile than OB. Sensory evaluation indicated that DB exhibited a comparable appearance and texture to commercial beverages, although overall acceptability was modestly lower due to reduced sweetness and retronasal aroma. In vivo, DB pretreatment significantly attenuated gastric mucosal damage in a dose-dependent manner, as evidenced by reduced lesion area and improved histopathological features. High-dose DB (200 mg/kg) showed superior gastroprotective efficacy compared with OB at the same dose and effects comparable to omeprazole. Mechanistically, DB reduced lipid peroxidation, restored glutathione redox balance, enhanced antioxidant enzyme activities, preserved prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) levels through modulation of cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and downregulated NF-κB-mediated inflammatory signaling, including iNOS, TNF-α, and IL-6. These findings demonstrate that DB confers effective protection against NSAID-induced gastric injury through coordinated antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions, supporting its potential as a functional beverage for gastric health.