Virtual reality in physiological education: Influence of learning modality and learner characteristics on learning...

Virtual reality (VR)-based immersive learning has significantly transformed the educational landscape over the past decade. While extensive research has explored the effects of VR-based immersive learning on learning performance, less attention has been given to the role of learner characteristics, particularly in the context of physiological education. This study addresses this gap by investigating the interplay between learning modalities, learner traits, and learning outcomes. Using a rigorous experimental design, we found that VR-based immersive learning was slightly inferior to traditional multimedia methods for acquiring anatomical knowledge. Moreover, although learners with higher visual-spatial abilities and Openness to Experience demonstrated better knowledge acquisition, these traits did not differentially affect learning outcomes across modalities. These findings suggest that effective use of VR in physiological education requires careful designs that incorporate immersive features while minimizing cognitive burden to learners. Furthermore, tailoring VR learning materials to individual learner traits may enhance educational effectiveness in physiological contexts.