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Related Concept Videos

T Cell Activation and Clonal Selection01:22

T Cell Activation and Clonal Selection

T cells are integral to our adaptive immune system, recognizing and effectively responding to foreign antigens. T cell activation and clonal selection are pivotal in orchestrating this immune response. This article elucidates these mechanisms, detailing the roles of cluster of differentiation (CD) markers, major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules, costimulatory signals, and the process of clonal selection.
Naive T cells that have not yet encountered an antigen express two primary CD...
T Cell Types and Functions01:24

T Cell Types and Functions

When T cells with CD4 markers are activated, they give rise to two types of effector cells: helper T cells and regulatory T cells. Meanwhile, T cells with CD8 markers differentiate into effector cytotoxic T cells. The differentiation of CD4 T cells into helper T cell subsets, such as Th1, Th2, and Th17 cells, is dependent on the antigen type, antigen-presenting cell, and regulatory cytokines.
Th1 cells stimulate dendritic cells to express necessary co-stimulatory molecules on their surfaces for...
Tumor Immunotherapy01:27

Tumor Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy is a treatment that boosts or manipulates the immune system to fight diseases, including cancer. For instance, by stimulating an immune response through vaccinations against viruses that cause cancers, like hepatitis B virus and human papillomavirus, these diseases can be prevented. Nonetheless, some cancer cells can avoid the immune system due to their rapid mutation and division. The immune response to many cancers involves three phases: elimination, equilibrium, and escape.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 28, 2026

Generation of Human Chimeric Antigen Receptor Regulatory T Cells
10:29

Generation of Human Chimeric Antigen Receptor Regulatory T Cells

Published on: January 3, 2025

Early Immune Signature Features, Including TLR2 and TLR4 Expression, Are Associated with Complete Remission After

Serena Di Iasio1, Chiara Di Nunzio1, Elisabetta De Santis1

  • 1Hematopathology Unit, Institute for Stem Cell Biology, Regenerative Medicine and Innovative Therapeutics (ISBReMIT), Fondazione IRCCS "Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza", Viale Padre Pio, 7, 71013 San Giovanni Rotondo, Italy.

Pharmaceuticals (Basel, Switzerland)
|May 27, 2026
PubMed
Summary

Chimeric antigen receptor T (CAR-T) cell therapy for lymphoma causes two immune activation waves. Early expression of Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) on immune cells may predict complete remission (CR).

Keywords:
#x3B#xA0&ampCAR-T cellsDLBCLTLR4)Toll-like receptors 2 and 4 (TLR2&ampbiomarkerscomplete remission (CR)flow cytometry

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Dynamic Imaging of Chimeric Antigen Receptor T Cells with [18F]Tetrafluoroborate Positron Emission Tomography/Computed Tomography

Published on: February 17, 2022

Area of Science:

  • Immunology
  • Cell Therapy
  • Oncology

Background:

  • Chimeric antigen receptor T (CAR-T) cell therapy, specifically targeting CD19, profoundly remodels the immune system.
  • Biomarkers predicting complete remission (CR) after CAR-T therapy remain poorly defined.
  • Understanding immune dynamics post-CAR-T infusion is crucial for optimizing treatment outcomes.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To characterize longitudinal cytokine and immune-cell dynamics following anti-CD19 CAR-T cell therapy.
  • To identify early immunological features associated with complete remission (CR) in patients with non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
  • To explore the role of Toll-like receptor (TLR) expression in predicting CAR-T therapy response.

Main Methods:

  • Longitudinal immune profiling of 18 non-Hodgkin lymphoma patients treated with anti-CD19 CAR-T cells.
  • Multiparameter flow cytometry to quantify immune cell subsets and TLR2/TLR4 expression.
  • Multiplex assays for serum cytokines and machine-learning for feature selection associated with CR.

Main Results:

  • Two distinct inflammatory waves observed: early (day 7) with specific cytokines and immune cells, and later (days 21-28) with different cytokine profiles and immune cell expansion.
  • Significant upregulation of Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) expression on T-cell subsets and monocytes at day 7 post-infusion.
  • Exploratory analysis identified baseline and day-7 TLR2/TLR4 expression, early IFN-γ, and monocyte frequency as potential predictors of CR.

Conclusions:

  • Anti-CD19 CAR-T therapy induces two coordinated waves of immune activation and cytokine release.
  • Early modulation of innate immune features, particularly TLR2 expression, is associated with complete remission.
  • These findings suggest potential early biomarkers for CAR-T therapy response, requiring further validation.