Microplastic co-pollution in food systems: interaction mechanisms, migration, removal technologies, and environmental...

Microplastics have emerged as a pervasive contaminant in global food and environmental systems. This review systematically synthesizes the complete pathway of microplastics from environmental compartments to the human food chain, with particular emphasis on their role as carriers of co-contaminants (microorganisms, persistent organic pollutants, and heavy metals). Key findings indicate that microplastics are widely detected across air, water, soil, and food matrices, yet the combined toxicity of microplastic co-pollution complexes remain poorly characterized under physiologically relevant conditions. Although human ingestion via food is well documented, direct evidence linking tissue accumulation to specific health outcomes is lacking, primarily due to methodological heterogeneity and a paucity of chronic exposure data. Addressing these gaps requires harmonized analytical protocols and long-term epidemiological studies. For food safety, we recommend routine monitoring of microplastic co-pollution complexes along supply chains, optimization of food processing (e.g., filtration, washing) to reduce co-contaminant loads, source-directed policies to reduce plastic use. Furthermore, this review identifies priority research directions, including the need for mechanistic toxicity studies, method harmonization, and removal strategies targeting both microplastics and their co-pollutants. Quantitative comparison of removal efficiencies across different food matrices and validation under real-world processing conditions are urgently needed to bridge the gap between laboratory findings and practical interventions. By bridging environmental and food safety research, this review provides a scientific basis for integrated strategies to mitigate microplastic pollution from source to plate.