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Bystander Effect

The discussion of bullying highlights the problem of witnesses not intervening to help a victim. This is a common occurrence, as the following well-publicized event demonstrates. In 1964, in Queens, New York, a 19-year-old woman named Kitty Genovese was attacked by a person with a knife near the back entrance to her apartment building and again in the hallway inside her apartment building. When the attack occurred, she screamed for help numerous times and eventually died from her stab wounds.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 5, 2026

The Resident-intruder Paradigm: A Standardized Test for Aggression, Violence and Social Stress
09:12

The Resident-intruder Paradigm: A Standardized Test for Aggression, Violence and Social Stress

Published on: July 4, 2013

When help is harm.

A Darise Farris1, Ananth Aditya Jupudi1

  • 1Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 NE 13th Street, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA.

Science Advances
|June 3, 2026
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

B cells and T helper cells with matching antigen specificity cooperate to create harmful antibodies against the Ro60 autoantigen in Sjögren's disease.

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Area of Science:

  • Immunology
  • Autoimmunity
  • Rheumatology

Background:

  • Sjögren's disease is an autoimmune disorder characterized by inflammation of exocrine glands.
  • Autoantibodies, such as anti-Ro60, are common in Sjögren's disease, but their pathogenic mechanisms are not fully understood.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the collaborative role of B cells and T helper cells in the production of pathogenic anti-Ro60 antibodies.
  • To elucidate the antigen specificity requirements for this B cell-T cell collaboration.

Main Methods:

  • Flow cytometry to identify and sort B and T cells.
  • ELISA to detect anti-Ro60 antibody production.
  • Antigen-specific T cell proliferation assays.

Main Results:

  • B cells and T helper cells sharing the same specificity for the Ro60 autoantigen were identified.
  • This antigen-specific collaboration led to the production of antibodies targeting Ro60.
  • The findings highlight a key mechanism in the pathogenesis of Sjögren's disease.

Conclusions:

  • Antigen-specific collaboration between B cells and T helper cells is crucial for generating pathogenic anti-Ro60 antibodies.
  • This mechanism contributes to the autoimmune response in Sjögren's disease.