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Related Concept Videos

Open and closed-loop control systems01:17

Open and closed-loop control systems

Control systems are foundational elements in automation and engineering. They are broadly categorized into open-loop and closed-loop systems. These classifications hinge on the presence or absence of feedback mechanisms, significantly influencing the system's performance, complexity, and application.
An open-loop control system operates without feedback from the output. It consists of two primary elements: the controller and the controlled process. The controller receives an input signal and...
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What is a Sensory System?

Sensory systems detect stimuli—such as light and sound waves—and transduce them into neural signals that can be interpreted by the nervous system. In addition to external stimuli detected by the senses, some sensory systems detect internal stimuli—such as the proprioceptors in muscles and tendons that send feedback about limb position.
Control Systems01:10

Control Systems

Control systems are everywhere in contemporary society, influencing diverse applications from aerospace to automated manufacturing. These systems can be found naturally within biological processes, such as blood sugar regulation and heart rate adjustment in response to stress, as well as in man-made systems like elevators and automated vehicles. A control system is essentially a network of subsystems and processes that collaboratively convert specific inputs into desired outputs.
At the heart...
Feedback control systems01:26

Feedback control systems

Feedback control systems are categorized in various ways based on their design, analysis, and signal types.
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Cell Signaling Feedback Loops01:07

Cell Signaling Feedback Loops

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Negative feedback loops
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Output limiter
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Leaky Scanning02:28

Leaky Scanning

During most eukaryotic translation processes, the small 40S ribosome subunit scans an mRNA from its 5' end until it encounters the first start AUG codon. The large 60S ribosomal subunit then joins the smaller one to initiate protein synthesis. The location of the translation initiation is largely determined by the nucleotides near the start codon as there may be multiple translation initiation sites present on the mRNA.  Marilyn Kozak discovered that the sequence RCCAUGG (where R stands for...

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Updated: Jun 12, 2026

In Situ Soil Moisture Sensors in Undisturbed Soils
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Published on: November 18, 2022

Closed-loop SCS and sensing: now and in the future.

Krishnan Chakravarthy1,2,3, Vwaire Orhurhu4,5, Jan Willem Kallewaard6,7

  • 1VA San Diego Healthcare, San Diego, CA, United States.

Pain Medicine (Malden, Mass.)
|June 10, 2026
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Closed-loop (CL) spinal cord stimulation (SCS) uses evoked compound action potentials (ECAPs) to optimize pain relief. This technology aims to prevent under- and overstimulation by adjusting therapy based on neural activation.

Keywords:
closed loop SCSevoked compound action potentialspinal cordspinal cord stimulation

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Area of Science:

  • Neuromodulation
  • Pain Management
  • Biomedical Engineering

Background:

  • Spinal cord stimulation (SCS) has evolved with new waveforms and applications.
  • Evoked compound action potential (ECAP)-controlled closed-loop (CL) SCS represents a significant advancement.
  • ECAPs measure neural activation, enabling real-time adjustments to stimulation amplitude.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review the history and rationale behind CL SCS systems.
  • To discuss the technical challenges in implementing ECAP-based CL SCS.
  • To highlight advancements in artifact suppression and control algorithms for CL SCS.

Main Methods:

  • Review of existing literature and commercial CL SCS systems.
  • Analysis of ECAP signal isolation from stimulation artifacts.
  • Comparison of different CL SCS approaches, including low- and high-frequency stimulation.

Main Results:

  • CL SCS systems utilize ECAPs to maintain therapy within a defined range, avoiding paresthesia extremes.
  • Commercial systems vary in their approach to ECAP utilization and stimulation parameters.
  • Advanced artifact suppression and control algorithms are crucial for effective CL SCS.

Conclusions:

  • CL SCS technology offers improved control over neuromodulation for chronic pain.
  • Overcoming challenges in signal processing and algorithm design is key to CL SCS success.
  • The evolution of CL SCS aims to provide more consistent and effective pain management.