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Systematic validation of time-resolved diffuse optical simulators via non-contact spad-based measurements.

Weijia Zhao1, Linlin Li1, Kaiqi Kuang1

  • 1School of Information Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China.

Physics in Medicine and Biology
|June 10, 2026
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Mesh-based Monte Carlo (MMC) offers superior accuracy for time-domain diffuse optical imaging (TD-DOI) simulations, while finite-element method solvers like NIRFASTer and Toast++ provide faster computation. This study validates TD-DOI simulators using experimental data for improved system development.

Keywords:
diffuse optical imagingnon-contact optical detectionphantom validationsingle-photon avalanche diodetissue light propagation

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Area of Science:

  • Biomedical Optics
  • Medical Imaging
  • Computational Modeling

Background:

  • Accurate forward models are crucial for time-domain diffuse optical imaging (TD-DOI) but existing simulators lack validation, especially for non-contact setups.
  • Experimental validation of TD-DOI simulators is needed for reliable photon propagation modeling in scattering media.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To rigorously evaluate three open-source TD-DOI simulators: MMC, NIRFASTer, and Toast++.
  • To compare simulation accuracy, computational speed, and applicability for non-contact TD-DOI using time-resolved experimental data.

Main Methods:

  • Compared MMC (Monte Carlo), NIRFASTer, and Toast++ (FEM) using a unified mesh and point-source illumination.
  • Applied virtual source approximation for FEM solvers in non-contact oblique illumination scenarios.
  • Acquired time-resolved transmission data using a SPAD array from BIP-certified phantoms and quantified simulation accuracy and speed.

Main Results:

  • MMC demonstrated superior spatial-domain and time-domain accuracy.
  • NIRFASTer and Toast++ showed comparable performance, offering faster computation for applications like image reconstruction.
  • Virtual source approximation significantly reduced errors (>34%) in non-contact FEM modeling.

Conclusions:

  • This study provides a framework for selecting TD-DOI simulators based on accuracy and speed requirements.
  • The validation against SPAD array data under non-contact conditions bridges a gap in biomedical optical simulation standards.
  • Facilitates faster prototyping of novel TD-DOI systems by optimizing solver selection and configuration.