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Related Concept Videos

Glycolysis: Preparatory Phase01:21

Glycolysis: Preparatory Phase

In cellular metabolism (the complete breakdown of glucose to extract energy),  glycolysis is the first step. Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Glucose enters heterotrophic cells in two ways. One method is through secondary active transport, where the transport takes place against the glucose concentration gradient. The other mechanism uses a group of integral proteins called GLUT proteins, also known as glucose transporter proteins. These...
Conversion of Alcohols to Alkyl Halides02:48

Conversion of Alcohols to Alkyl Halides

This lesson delves into the conversion of alcohols to corresponding alkyl halides and the mechanism of action for different reagents. Typically, the hydroxyl group is first protonated to convert it to a stable leaving group. Consequently, based on the starting alcohol, the mechanism undergoes either of the nucleophilic substitution routes, SN1 or SN2. Tertiary alkyl halides are made using the two-step SN1 mechanism that occurs via a carbocation intermediate, which is stabilized by...
Production of Alcohol01:27

Production of Alcohol

Continuous fermentation is a key strategy in industrial ethanol production, particularly when efficiency, scalability, and high yields are essential. This approach allows for uninterrupted operation and optimized resource utilization. The primary feedstock, corn starch, undergoes enzymatic hydrolysis facilitated by α-amylase and glucoamylase. These enzymes break down the starch into fermentable sugars such as glucose, which are readily assimilated by fermentative microorganisms.Fermentation...
Acid Halides to Alcohols: LiAlH4 Reduction01:19

Acid Halides to Alcohols: LiAlH4 Reduction

Acid halides are reduced to alcohols in the presence of a strong reducing agent like lithium aluminum hydride.
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Reduction of Alkynes to cis-Alkenes: Catalytic Hydrogenation02:24

Reduction of Alkynes to cis-Alkenes: Catalytic Hydrogenation

Introduction
Like alkenes, alkynes can be reduced to alkanes in the presence of transition metal catalysts such as Pt, Pd, or Ni. The reaction involves two sequential syn additions of hydrogen via a cis-alkene intermediate.
Acid Halides to Ketones: Gilman Reagent01:14

Acid Halides to Ketones: Gilman Reagent

Lithium dialkyl cuprate, also known as Gilman reagents, selectively reduces acid halides to ketones. The acid chloride is treated with Gilman reagent at −78 °C in the presence of ether solution to produce a ketone in good yield.
As shown below, the mechanism proceeds in two steps. First, one of the alkyl groups of the reagent acts as a nucleophile and attacks the acyl carbon of the acid chloride to form a tetrahedral intermediate. This is followed by the reformation of the carbon–oxygen double...

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Updated: Jun 13, 2026

Rapid One-step Enzymatic Synthesis and All-aqueous Purification of Trehalose Analogues
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Glucose-to-Fructose Isomerization: Optimisation and Mechanistic Insights Using Cheap Polyaluminium Chloride Catalyst.

Antonella Angelini1, Carlo Pastore1

  • 1Italian National Research Council, Water Research Institute (IRSA-CNR), Viale Francesco De Blasio, 5, 70121 Bari, Italy.

Molecules (Basel, Switzerland)
|June 12, 2026
PubMed
Summary

Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) effectively catalyzes the conversion of glucose to fructose, a key step in biomass valorization. This study demonstrates PAC as a sustainable and scalable alternative catalyst for efficient fructose production.

Keywords:
Isomerization of glucosebenchtop NMRpolyaluminium chloride

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Area of Science:

  • Catalysis
  • Biomass Conversion
  • Green Chemistry

Background:

  • Glucose to fructose isomerization is crucial for lignocellulosic biomass valorization.
  • Conventional catalysts often have limitations in cost, scalability, or sustainability.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate polyaluminium chloride (PAC) as a novel, low-cost catalyst for glucose isomerization to fructose.
  • To optimize reaction conditions for maximizing fructose yield and selectivity using PAC.

Main Methods:

  • Systematic investigation of PAC performance by varying temperature, solvent, and reaction time.
  • Utilizing benchtop Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy for mechanistic insights and quantitative monitoring.
  • Characterization of aluminum species in PAC using 27Al-NMR.

Main Results:

  • Achieved a maximum fructose yield of 55% with 85% selectivity under optimized conditions (120 °C, H2O:MeOH 1:1, 120 min).
  • Identified reactive aluminum species generated under reaction conditions, including tetrahedral Al centers.
  • Demonstrated that PAC is more effective than starting materials and conventional catalysts.

Conclusions:

  • Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) is a viable, scalable, and sustainable alternative catalyst for glucose isomerization.
  • PAC offers a promising route for efficient biomass conversion processes.
  • Optimized conditions and mechanistic understanding pave the way for industrial application.