Magnetoelectric 3D Microenvironments for Tissue Engineering: A Comprehensive Review

Magnetoelectric (ME) scaffolds represent multifunctional platforms capable of converting magnetic fields into localized electric stimuli. This unique property enables the design of microenvironments for tissue engineering, particularly in bone, skin, and nerve repair, where exogenous electric potentials can accelerate healing, guide cellular behavior, and modulate the immune response. Beyond tissue engineering, ME scaffolds have also demonstrated high potential in biosensing, energy harvesting, and the Internet of Things, opening avenues for real-time physiological monitoring and responsive therapeutic interventions. Recent progress in material composition, hierarchical structuring, and advanced fabrication technologies has expanded the design space for ME scaffolds, allowing improved control over biological interactions and functional outputs. Nevertheless, several important challenges still remain, including ensuring long-term biocompatibility, the efficiency of ME stimulation under clinically relevant conditions, and developing scalable, reproducible manufacturing methods. This review provides a critical overview of the fabrication methods of ME scaffolds with tailored structures, and phase composition, with emphasis on their multifunctionality and biomedical applications. We also discuss the current limitations and offer a forward-looking perspective on how design strategies, interdisciplinary integration, and research may accelerate the translation of ME microenvironments, such as polymer- and hydrogel-based 3D constructions, to tissue engineering and beyond.