Advances in Biomaterial-Based Cardiac Organoids Engineering for Modeling Development and Congenital Heart Defects

Human cardiac organoids have emerged as transformative platforms that bridge the gap between reductionist 2D cultures and poorly predictive animal models. By recapitulating the three-dimensional tissue architecture, multicellular composition, and developmental dynamics of the human heart, these systems enable mechanistic studies of heart development and congenital heart disease. This review surveys the bioengineering strategies underlying cardiac organoid generation, with an emphasis on how biomaterial-based approaches enhance organoid fidelity, functional maturation, and experimental reproducibility. We discuss how specific material platforms, spanning Matrigel encapsulation, natural and decellularized extracellular matrix hydrogels, and synthetic polymer networks, translate defined mechanical, biochemical, and structural cues into functional advances in vascularization, cardiomyocyte maturation, and scalable organoid production. A comparative framework is provided across all platform types to guide material selection for cardiac organoid culture and engineering. Applications of biomaterial-supported cardiac organoids in modeling human cardiogenesis and congenital heart defects, as well as in developmental cardiotoxicity screening, are reviewed in depth. Furthermore, we discuss persistent challenges in organoid maturation, vascularization, and standardization and outline future directions integrating advanced biomaterials, organ-on-chip systems, and artificial intelligence-driven analytics to enable next-generation human cardiac models.