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Secondary Messengers in Hormone Action

Secondary Messengers in Hormone Action

Water-soluble hormones cannot cross the plasma membrane, so they rely on protein receptors that span the membrane to trigger intracellular signaling pathways. These pathways then activate second messengers inside the cell, including cAMP or calcium ions.
Many hormones bind to transmembrane G protein-coupled receptors that connect to regulatory G proteins. These G proteins can then activate enzymes such as adenylyl cyclase or phospholipase C. Adenylyl cyclase converts ATP to cAMP, activating...

Interactions Between Signaling Pathways

Interactions Between Signaling Pathways

Signaling cascades usually lack linearity. Multiple pathways interact and regulate one another, allowing cells to integrate and respond to diverse environmental stimuli.
Convergence and divergence, and cross-talk between signaling pathways
Two distinct signaling pathways can converge on a single functional unit, which may either be a single protein or a complex of proteins. The response is either functionally distinct or synergistic between the two pathways but different from the response...

Target Cell Response to Hormones

Target Cell Response to Hormones

Hormones intricately bind to receptors on the surface or within target cells, initiating a cascade of cellular responses.
Notably, the cellular response can be regulated by altering the number of receptors expressed in the cell. For example, prolonged exposure to elevated hormone levels results in a gradual decline or down-regulation in the number of receptors for that specific hormone on the cell surface. Conversely, in response to low hormone levels, cells may use up-regulation, producing an...

Chemical Signaling in the Endocrine System

Chemical Signaling in the Endocrine System

A signaling cascade is a series of events that facilitates the transmission of information within or between cells, culminating in a targeted response in the recipient cell. As chemical messengers, hormones are pivotal in initiating and modulating these intricate signaling cascades based on their solubility.
Lipid-soluble hormones, such as steroid hormones, demonstrate an intracellular action. These hormones traverse cell membranes due to their lipid nature. Once inside the target cell, they...

Amplifying Signals via Second Messengers

Amplifying Signals via Second Messengers

Many receptor binding ligands are hydrophilic; they do not cross the cell membrane but bind to cell-surface receptors. Thus, their message must be relayed by second messengers present in the cell cytoplasm. There are several second messenger pathways, each with its own way of relaying information. For example, the G protein-coupled receptors can activate both phosphoinositol and cyclic AMP (cAMP) second messenger pathways. The phosphoinositol pathway is active when the receptor induces...

Cell-surface Signaling

Cell-surface Signaling

Hormones—or any molecule that binds to a receptor, known as a ligand—that are lipid-insoluble (water-soluble) are not able to diffuse across the cell membrane. In order to be able to affect a cell without entering it, these hormones bind to receptors on the cell membrane. When a first messenger, a hormone, binds to a receptor, a signal cascade is set off, causing second messengers, proteins inside the cell, to become activated, resulting in downstream effects.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 21, 2026

Rapid One-step Enzymatic Synthesis and All-aqueous Purification of Trehalose Analogues

Rapid One-step Enzymatic Synthesis and All-aqueous Purification of Trehalose Analogues

Published on: February 17, 2017

Trehalose 6-phosphate and hormone signalling crosstalk.

Matthew J Paul¹, Pranav P Sahu¹, Swati Puranik¹

¹Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, AL5 2JQ, United Kingdom.

Current Opinion in Plant Biology

|June 19, 2026

Summary

Plant hormones and trehalose 6-phosphate (T6P) signaling interact to regulate growth and development. Understanding these sugar-hormone pathways is key for crop improvement and balancing productivity with survival.

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Area of Science:

Plant Biology
Molecular Plant Physiology
Biochemistry

Background:

Hormone and sugar signaling pathways are crucial for plant growth and resource allocation.
Trehalose 6-phosphate (T6P) integrates sucrose availability across plant development.
Interactions between T6P and plant hormones are a key emerging research area.

Purpose of the Study:

To review the interactions between trehalose 6-phosphate (T6P) and plant hormones.
To highlight the regulatory roles of these interactions in plant development.
To discuss the implications for crop improvement.

Main Methods:

Literature review focusing on T6P-hormone interactions.
Analysis of cis-acting regulatory elements in Arabidopsis TPS and TPP genes.
Integration of findings on hormonal and sugar signaling pathways.

Main Results:

T6P interacts with auxin, strigolactones, and abscisic acid (ABA), with reciprocal regulation observed for auxin-T6P and ABA-T6P.
These interactions influence root/shoot branching, seed development, and stomatal function.
Auxin and ABA are confirmed regulators of Arabidopsis TPS and TPP genes, with methyl jasmonate also showing regulatory potential.

Conclusions:

T6P and hormone interactions converge on SnRK1 and TOR signaling hubs.
Understanding T6P-hormone regulation is vital for manipulating the productivity-survival trade-off in crops.
Future research can leverage this knowledge for agricultural advancements.