Animal models of spinal cord injury in neuro-urological research

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a life-changing and costly condition. SCI causes major disturbances in sensory, motor and autonomic function, resulting in permanent loss of function and strongly affecting the physical, psychological and social well-being of patients and caregivers. A particularly debilitating consequence of SCI is loss of voluntary control over bladder function, which substantially affects patients' dignity, health and quality of life. Current understanding of the complex pathophysiological mechanisms of SCI and associated comorbidities has heavily relied on the use of animal models, which have also been crucial in devising new therapeutic approaches and fine-tuning existent ones. However, a debate about the persistent challenges in translating preclinical data into treatment is ongoing. Technological advances are generating innovative modelling approaches with the support of regulatory bodies, aiming to reduce or eventually substitute animal use. In this Review, we address the current use of animal SCI models in neuro-urological research and debate whether we will still be using these models by 2035.