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A Detailed Protocol for Perspiration Monitoring Using a Novel, Small, Wireless Device
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Fully 3D-Printed Analytical Device Based on a Novel Floating Electrode Mechanism for Sweat Rate Acquisition.

Xing Xuan1, Daniel Rojas1, Silvia Pérez-Piñero2

  • 1UCAM-SENS, Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia, UCAM HiTech, Avda. Andres Hernandez Ros 1, 30107 Murcia, Spain.

ACS Measurement Science Au
|June 22, 2026
PubMed
Summary

We developed a novel 3D-printed sensor using "floating electrodes" for noninvasive sweat rate measurement, enabling accurate hydration level assessment. This innovative device offers customizable, on-demand analytical solutions for personalized health monitoring.

Keywords:
3D printingfloating mechanismone-step manufacturingsweat ratewearables

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Area of Science:

  • Materials Science
  • Analytical Chemistry
  • Biomedical Engineering

Background:

  • Noninvasive monitoring of physiological parameters like sweat rate is crucial for hydration assessment.
  • Existing methods for sweat rate measurement can be cumbersome or lack precision.
  • Advancements in 3D printing offer new possibilities for creating customized sensing devices.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To develop and validate a novel, 3D-printed sensing device for noninvasive sweat rate measurement.
  • To investigate the impact of sensor configuration, particularly "floating electrodes", on measurement accuracy.
  • To assess the device's performance against established methods for hydration level assessment.

Main Methods:

  • Fabrication of a multilayered sensing device using conductive (CB-PLA) and nonconductive polylactic acid (PLA) via 3D printing.
  • Integration of "floating electrodes" to modify device impedance during sweat flow.
  • Evaluation of various sensor configurations (2, 4, 6, 8, multilayered) and electrode designs.
  • Off-body calibration and on-body validation using iontophoresis and cycling to induce sweating.

Main Results:

  • The optimal four-electrode system demonstrated a calibration range of 1-10 μL min⁻¹ with high correlation (r=0.927) to timer-based validation.
  • On-body testing showed strong correlation (r=0.79-0.93) with the cotton patch gravimetric method.
  • The "floating electrode" concept proved effective in both single- and double-layer designs, showing minimal variations (0-15%).

Conclusions:

  • The developed 3D-printed sensor with "floating electrodes" provides a reliable and noninvasive method for sweat rate measurement and hydration assessment.
  • 3D printing technology enables on-demand customization and scalability of these analytical devices.
  • The "floating electrode" concept holds significant potential for future development of advanced sweat sensing technologies.