Port sustainability: Synergistic pathways and perspectives for air pollution control and carbon mitigation

As pivotal interfaces of maritime trade and urban-industrial systems, ports are increasingly challenged by their dual roles in enabling economic activity and generating air pollution and carbon emissions. This review provides a structured assessment of emission characteristics, mitigation technologies, and governance strategies aimed at port sustainability. It first delineates the primary emission sources-ships, cargo handling equipment, land transport, and on-site energy systems-focusing on key pollutants such as NO_x, SO₂, PM_2.5, VOCs, and CO₂. Synergistic technological pathways are then examined, including ship-based alternatives such as shore power, low-carbon fuels, and carbon capture and storage, along with port-side electrification, operational optimization, and integration of renewables. The review further assesses how regulatory frameworks-encompassing mandatory rules, market-based incentives, and international cooperation-govern the adoption and scaling of these technologies. Drawing on case studies from both developed and developing economies, the review identifies enabling factors including institutional coordination and technological readiness, alongside persistent barriers such as fragmented governance and limited financing. It concludes by outlining four strategic imperatives: accelerating scalable technologies diffusion, enhancing multilevel governance alignment, embedding port transitions within broader urban and industrial systems, and promoting equity through just transition frameworks. By integrating technical and institutional dimensions, the review provides a forward-looking roadmap for low-carbon, clean, and resilient port development.