Multiclass endocrine-disrupting chemicals in China WWTPs: occurrence, removal efficiencies, and ecological
1School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China.
Abstract:
Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), widely detected in the environment, pose ecological and health risks. This study systematically evaluates the occurrence, fate, and removal efficacy of multiclass EDCs in Chinese wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Results show an overall EDC removal rate of 78.6 %, primarily driven by biodegradation (57.9 %) and tertiary treatment (2.2 %). Residual EDCs were distributed in effluent (21.4 %) and sludge (10.5 %), with sludge concentrations reaching 656 times influent levels due to accumulation. Steroid hormones and phenolic compounds exhibited high secondary removal (71.7 % and 63.4 %), while Di-ethyl hexyl phthalate (DEHP) accumulated in sludge (47.5 %) owing to poor degradability (34.0 % removal). Estrogenic activity varied across metros (Beijing/Hefei > Guangzhou > Shanghai), with Ethinylestradiol (EE2) dominating wastewater and phthalate esters (PAEs) (e.g., DEHP: 53.4 % in Hefei sludge) prevalent in sludge. Risk quotient (RQ) analysis identified DEHP, Nonylphenol (NP), Octylphenol (OP), and Di-butyl phthalate (DBP) as major ecological risks in influent (98 % of total RQ). Biological treatment reduced overall risks by 82 %, eliminating Di-methyl phthalate (DMP) and mitigating Estrone (E1)/NP/OP/DBP risks. Tertiary treatment provided incremental reduction (4 %), though NP, Benzyl-butyl Phthalate (BBP), DBP, and DEHP persisted as medium-to-high risks (98 % residual RQ), while NP, OP, and PAEs posed moderate sludge risks. Increasing hydraulic/sludge retention times enhanced biodegradation, and quantitative meta-analysis confirmed anaerobic-anoxic-oxic with moving bed biofilm reactor and coagulation-sedimentation-filtration-disinfection as optimal for EDCs removal. These insights support WWTP optimization and targeted sludge management.
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