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Related Concept Videos

Ankle Joint01:10

Ankle Joint

The ankle is formed by the talocrural joint (crural = leg). It consists of the articulations between the talus bone of the foot and the distal ends of the tibia and fibula of the leg. The superior aspect of the talus bone is square-shaped and has three areas of articulation. The top of the talus articulates with the inferior tibia. This is the portion of the ankle joint that carries the body weight between the leg and foot. The sides of the talus are firmly held in position by the articulations...
Bones of the Lower Limb: Tibia and Fibula01:10

Bones of the Lower Limb: Tibia and Fibula

The tibia is the main weight-bearing bone of the lower leg. It is larger than the fibula with which it is paired. The tibia is also the second longest bone in the body and is located right below the skin. The proximal end of the tibia forms the medial and the lateral condyle, which articulates with the condyles of the femur to form the knee joint. Between the articulating surfaces is the irregular elevated area known as the intercondylar eminence that serves as the inferior attachment point for...
Development of the Limb Synovial Joints01:07

Development of the Limb Synovial Joints

Joints form during embryonic development in conjunction with the formation and growth of the associated bones. The embryonic tissue that gives rise to all bones, cartilage, and connective tissues of the body is called mesenchyme.
The mesenchymal stem cells differentiate into chondrocytes that form the hyaline cartilage, and later the cartilaginous model of the bone. This model further transforms into a bone. This process is known as endochondral ossification.
During development, the limbs...
Changes in the Appendicular Skeleton with Age01:09

Changes in the Appendicular Skeleton with Age

The upper and lower limb initially develops as a small bulge called a limb bud, which appears on the lateral side of the early embryo. The upper limb bud appears near the end of the fourth week of development, with the lower limb bud appearing shortly after.
Initially, the limb buds consist of a core of mesenchyme covered by a layer of ectoderm. The ectoderm at the end of the limb bud thickens to form a narrow crest called the apical ectodermal ridge. This ridge stimulates the underlying...
Bone Formation by Intramembranous Ossification01:29

Bone Formation by Intramembranous Ossification

Intramembranous ossification is one of the two processes involved in the development of bones within an embryo. The flat bones of the face, most of the cranial bones, and the clavicles are formed via this process. During intramembranous ossification, the bones develop directly from sheets of undifferentiated mesenchymal connective tissue.
The process begins when mesenchymal cells in the embryonic skeleton gather together and differentiate into osteogenic cells, which then develop into...
Growth of Cartilage and Bone Tissue01:27

Growth of Cartilage and Bone Tissue

Chondrocytes form a temporary cartilaginous model by dividing and secreting a thick gel-like extracellular matrix. Once the chondrocytes undergo programmed cell death, osteoblasts enter the site of the cartilaginous model. The process of replacing the temporary cartilaginous model with bone in an ordered manner is called endochondral ossification. In endochondral ossification, not all of the cartilage is replaced by bone tissue. Some cartilage that performs a protective and supportive function...

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Growing together: Developmental integration and modularity in the human talus-calcaneus complex.

Carla Figus1, Rita Sorrentino2, Francesca Seghi1

  • 1Department of Cultural Heritage, University of Bologna, Ravenna Campus, Ravenna, Italy.

Journal of Anatomy
|June 25, 2026
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

The human talus-calcaneus complex shows significant age-related shape changes and strong integration during childhood development (0-10 years). This integrated development supports its crucial role in locomotion and foot structure.

Keywords:
bipedalismcalcaneusgeometric morphometricsmodularitymorphological integrationontogenytalustrabecular bone

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A Mouse Model of Ankle-Subtalar Complex Joint Instability
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Area of Science:

  • Paleoanthropology
  • Developmental Biology
  • Biomechanics

Background:

  • The talus-calcaneus complex is crucial for human locomotion.
  • Understanding its postnatal development is key to foot function and evolution.
  • Previous research has not quantitatively assessed talus-calcaneus integration during ontogeny.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate age-related shape changes, morphological integration, and modularity in the human talus-calcaneus complex from birth to 10 years.
  • To analyze trabecular bone architecture in parallel with external morphology.
  • To provide the first quantitative assessment of talus-calcaneus integration during human postnatal development.

Main Methods:

  • Geometric morphometrics on 3D landmark data from 23 individuals (0-10 years).
  • Statistical analyses: Procrustes ANOVA, two-block partial least squares, Covariance Ratio tests.
  • Micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) for trabecular bone architectural analysis.

Main Results:

  • Significant age-related shape changes observed in both talus and calcaneus, with key transitions between 1-3 and 3-6 years.
  • Strong morphological integration between talus and calcaneus confirmed across all ages.
  • Distinct developmental patterns in trabecular bone: talus stabilizes, calcaneus shows progressive increases reflecting impact adaptation.

Conclusions:

  • The talus-calcaneus complex displays coordinated development and strong integration in both external shape and internal architecture.
  • These findings highlight the complex's role as an integrated biomechanical system during human development.
  • Understanding this ontogenetic integration is vital for human locomotor evolution and foot development studies.