Who is the Victim and Who is the Perpetrator? The Influence of Gender Stereotypes on Bidirectional Intimate Partner...

Intimate partner violence is a widespread social problem with severe consequences for victims. While most research has focused on unidirectional violence, evidence shows that bidirectional violence (BV) is the most common form within intimate relationships. Its recognition, however, is often limited by gender stereotypes that portray women exclusively as victims and men as perpetrators. This study aimed to examine whether university students' judgments about BV varied according to the proportion of violence, the type of violence, and the initiator of violence, using three immersive virtual reality (VR) scenarios. A total of 162 university students were randomly assigned to view one of the scenarios and subsequently completed a questionnaire. Results showed that physical violence was perceived as more severe than psychological violence, "female-dominated" violence was judged more severely than "male-dominated," and women were judged more harshly when initiating conflict. No gender differences were found in judgments of responsibility, seriousness, or injury severity in the "male domination" scenario. These findings suggest that prevention and intervention strategies should move beyond gender-based assumptions, adopting inclusive approaches that address all victims' experiences and challenge prevailing gender stereotypes.