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Related Concept Videos

Phase II Conjugation Reactions: Overview01:14

Phase II Conjugation Reactions: Overview

Conjugation, a key component of phase II biotransformation reactions, is a vital process in drug detoxification. It involves transferring endogenous substances like glucuronic acid, sulfate, and glycine to drugs or their metabolites formed in phase I reactions. These conjugation reactions, often catalyzed by specific enzymes, transform potentially harmful metabolites into inactive, water-soluble forms easily excreted in urine or bile. By enhancing polarity and eliminating pharmacological...
Phase I Reactions: Hydrolytic Reactions01:15

Phase I Reactions: Hydrolytic Reactions

Hydrolysis, a cornerstone of phase I biotransformation reactions, uses water to cleave chemical bonds. This process is pivotal in drug metabolism, generating more polar metabolites that can be easily excreted.
An important hydrolytic reaction is ester hydrolysis. Ester bonds, often found in prodrugs, are broken down, increasing the solubility of drugs like aspirin and lidocaine for more straightforward elimination. Amide hydrolysis is another critical reaction, targeting amide bonds prevalent...
Phase I Reactions: Reductive Reactions01:27

Phase I Reactions: Reductive Reactions

Phase I biotransformation reductive reactions are chemical processes that modify drugs by introducing or revealing polar functional groups via reduction. Enzymes called reductases catalyze these reactions, playing a pivotal role in drug metabolism by transforming lipophilic drugs into more polar, water-soluble metabolites for easy excretion. An essential type of reductive reaction is the carbonyl group reduction, where aldehydes and ketones are reduced to alcohols. An example is the...
Radical Formation: Elimination00:51

Radical Formation: Elimination

Another method of radical formation is the elimination process. It is the opposite of the addition route and is driven by the instability of the radical. For example, as depicted in Figure 1, dibenzoyl peroxide yields a pair of unstable radicals upon homolysis. Given its instability, this radical spontaneously undergoes elimination via a C–C bond cleavage to form a relatively more stable phenyl radical. The mechanism involves cleavage of the bond between the α and β positions with respect to...
Radical Formation: Overview01:03

Radical Formation: Overview

A bond can be broken either by heterolytic bond cleavage to form ions or homolytic bond cleavage to yield radicals. A fishhook arrow is used to represent the motion of a single electron in homolytic bond cleavage. There are two main sources from which radicals can be formed:
Radicals from spin-paired molecules:
Radicals can be obtained from spin-paired molecules either by homolysis or electron transfer. While two radicals are formed in the former, an electron is added in the latter, also known...
Radical Formation: Homolysis00:54

Radical Formation: Homolysis

A bond is formed between two atoms by sharing two electrons. When this bond is broken by supplying sufficient energy, either two electrons can be taken up by one atom forming ions by the cleavage called heterolysis, or the two electrons are shared by two atoms, with one each creating radicals by the cleavage called homolysis.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 2, 2026

Synthesis of Information-bearing Peptoids and their Sequence-directed Dynamic Covalent Self-assembly
09:34

Synthesis of Information-bearing Peptoids and their Sequence-directed Dynamic Covalent Self-assembly

Published on: February 6, 2020

Pathway Controlled Phase Separation of Minimal Building Blocks Utilizing a Dissociative Chemical Transformation.

Sumit Pal1, Dibyendu Maity2, Janardan Chakraborty1

  • 1Department of Chemical Sciences and Centre for Advanced Functional Materials, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Kolkata, Mohanpur, India.

Angewandte Chemie (International Ed. in English)
|June 30, 2026
PubMed
Summary

Biology uses metastable states for macromolecule construction and phase separation. This study shows stable building blocks phase separate when coupled with precursor degradation, enabling pathway-controlled reactions and enhanced catalysis.

Keywords:
biomoleculescascade reactionscofactorsendergonic processphase separation

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Area of Science:

  • Biochemistry
  • Chemical Biology
  • Materials Science

Background:

  • Metastable states are crucial in biological processes like macromolecule assembly and out-of-equilibrium phase separation.
  • Energy transduction from exergonic reactions drives non-thermodynamic transformations, catalyzing the reactions themselves.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate phase separation of thermodynamically stable building blocks.
  • To explore the role of precursor degradation in driving and controlling phase separation.
  • To assess the catalytic potential of the resulting phase-separated structures.

Main Methods:

  • Coupling the phase separation of stable building blocks with the exergonic degradation of an activated precursor.
  • Utilizing a beta-elimination reaction for precursor degradation.
  • Observing droplet formation and characterization, including guest molecule imbibement and transition to proto-tissue-like structures.
  • Assessing the catalytic activity of the droplets in a hydrolase-peroxidase cascade reaction.

Main Results:

  • Thermodynamically stable products phase separate only when coupled with exergonic precursor degradation.
  • The chemical transformation via beta-elimination is essential for pathway-controlled phase separation.
  • Trimethylammonium cations from precursor degradation stabilize the phase-separated droplets.
  • Droplets can incorporate guest molecules and transform into proto-tissue structures with porphyrin.
  • Metastable liquid droplets enhance hemin's catalytic activity and accelerate cascade reactions.

Conclusions:

  • Pathway-controlled phase separation can be achieved by coupling thermodynamically stable products with exergonic precursor degradation.
  • These kinetically accessed metastable droplets possess unique properties, including guest molecule encapsulation and structural transitions.
  • The phase-separated structures exhibit augmented catalytic capabilities, accelerating biochemical reactions.