Intelligent adaptive frequency regulation of interconnected power networks under renewable uncertainty and time...

This paper proposes a novel adaptive control framework for load frequency regulation (LFC) in modern power systems with renewable energy integration and communication delays. A Single Perceptron Proportional-Integral (SPPI) controller optimized using Harmony Search (HS) is designed for single-area systems, while a cascaded SPPI-PID structure is developed for two-area networks. Unlike conventional fixed-parameter controllers, the proposed approach adapts online to varying operating conditions and disturbances. Simulation studies under step load changes, random load variations, and wind power fluctuations demonstrate superior performance of the proposed controllers. For single-area systems, the SPPI controller achieves overshoot as low as [Formula: see text], settling times between 9 and 21 s, and IAE ranging from 0.00176 to 0.312. In two-area systems, the cascaded SPPI-PID controller reduces peak-to-peak deviations to [Formula: see text], with settling times from 3 to 109 s and IAE values between 0.00115 and 0.1854. A sensitivity analysis with ± 20% variations in inertia, load damping, and governor speed regulation confirms the robustness of the proposed approach. A frequency-domain robustness analysis using Bode plots further verifies satisfactory stability margins. In addition, a real-time validation has been performed to further confirm the practical applicability and real-world performance of the proposed control framework under realistic operating conditions. These results indicate that the HS-optimized SPPI and cascaded SPPI-PID controllers provide an effective, reliable, and robust solution for frequency regulation in modern interconnected power systems.