3D printing for sustainable water treatment: innovations, applications, and future perspectives

Water is a vital resource essential for daily life, agriculture, and industrial activities. However, the availability of clean and safe water is threatened by the rapid expansion of modern industrialization. In response to these environmental challenges, innovative and sustainable water treatment technologies have become imperative for ensuring eco-friendly and sustainable water purification solutions. Among these emerging technologies, three-dimensional (3D) printing has gained attention for its unique advantages, including unparalleled design adaptability, scalability, material choice, and steadily declining costs with minimal byproduct generation. In particular, 3D printing has revolutionized membrane technology, enabling the layer-by-layer construction of ultra-thin membranes and membrane modules from a wide range of materials, with intricate hierarchical structures and various morphologies that are not possible with traditional production techniques. The current review aims to comprehensively summarize and critically discuss recent advancements in the application of 3D printing technologies for fabricating efficient and customizable membrane systems for wastewater treatment. It also highlights the versatility of 3D-printed materials and structures, the integration of multifunctional components, and the role of material modification in enhancing filtration performance. Furthermore, this review discusses the key challenges, current limitations, and future perspectives to guide further research and development in this field.